Public Policy Chapters 11 and 12

cap and trade policy

A policy action that relies on market-based mechanisms in which an overall cap or ceiling is set and trading of permits or allowances is allowed within that cap. The cap may be lowered over time.

carbon tax

A tax on gasoline or on all fossil fuels, often proposed as a revenue-neutral tax in which other taxes are lowered by the same amount as the new tax on carbon

clean power plan

Issued by the EPA in August 2015, a plan that seeks to reduce carbon pollution from electric power generation by 32 percent below 2005 levels when fully in place by 2030, and thereby to facilitate a transition to cleaner sources of energy. The plan also will significantly lower emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, major contributors to air pollution and thus a risk to public health.

climate change

A change in global climate patterns, characterized by rising temperatures, increased severity of storms, and persistent droughts, caused largely by greenhouse gas emissions from burning of fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas.

collaborative decision making

An approach to environmental or resource decision-making in which industry and other stakeholders work cooperatively with government officials. Thought to be more effective and less conflict ridden than more conventional regulation.

command and control

The traditional approach to environmental and other regulation (also called direct regulation) in which government sets and enforces standards within a policy or program area, for air quality or automobile safety.

corporate average fuel economy (cafe) standards

A federal program that mandates achievement of an average level of fuel efficiency for a given automaker’s line of vehicles— that is, it sets minimum fuel economy standards, but only for the average of all vehicles produced.

direct regulation

Also called command and control, or simply regulation. Government regulates or controls environmental, health, and safety performance of industry or other facilities through the setting and enforcement of standards and sometimes through requirements for certain technologies to be used.

ecosystem based management

A comprehensive approach to natural resource management that emphasizes the integrated treatment of entire ecosystems and their functions. Contrasted with efforts to deal with a specific species or body of land or water.

environmental impact statement (EIS)

A form of impact assessment in which government agencies must provide details on the environmental consequences of major actions, such as highway construction, and make them public prior to a final decision on the project.

environmental policy

Government actions that affect or attempt to affect environmental quality and the use of natural resources. The policy actions may take place at the local, state, regional, national, or international level.

environmental protection agency (epa)

An independent federal regulatory agency charged with enforcement of most environmental protection (such as pollution control) laws.

environmental stewardship

A philosophy of governance based on the belief that the natural environment should be protected for future generations—that is, that the government is the steward of such protection.

intergenerational equity

An ethical principle that emphasizes fairness or equity among generations. It is important for environmental and energy policies that have substantial effects far into the future, such as actions on climate change.

intergovernmental panel on climate change (ipcc)

The United Nations’ scientific body charged with periodic assessment of global climate change and its effects. Its reports are widely considered to reflect scientific consensus on the subject.

multiple use

The principle that any natural resource, such as public forestland, can be used simultaneously for multiple purposes or uses—for example, timber harvesting and recreation. A long-standing element of federal land and forest policies.

organization of the petroleum exporting countries (opec)

An association of oil-producing and -exporting nations that was established to help fuse their mutual interests, particularly the price of oil on the world market and the stability of oil production and consumption.

paris agreement

The late 2015 commitment by nearly all nations to adopt policies to lower greenhouse gas emissions in a major effort to combat climate change.

resource subsidies

Government policies that provide financial incentives (subsidies) to develop and use specific resources, such as land, water, minerals, and forests. Traditionally a major component of federal natural resource policies.

sustainable development

Economic growth that is compatible with environmental systems and social goals

toxics release inventory (tri)

A report published each year and that can be accessed on the Environmental Protection Agency’s website and elsewhere. The TRI describes toxic chemicals that industrial facilities release to the air, water, and land in communities across the country.

user fees

Specific fees or charges that the user of a natural resource pays. Could be fees for entering a national park, harvesting timber from public lands, or mining minerals on public lands.

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009

A major economic stimulus law passed during the Great Recession to boost the U.S. economy through government spending, tax cuts, and job creation, including investments in infrastructure, education, healthcare, and renewable energy.

Antiquities Act of 1906

A U.S. law that allows the president to protect important natural, cultural, or scientific areas by designating them as national monuments, helping preserve historic landmarks, artifacts, and public lands.

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970

A major update to the U.S. Clean Air Act that gave the federal government authority to regulate air pollution, established national air quality standards, and led to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency to enforce those standards.

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990

A major expansion of the Clean Air Act that strengthened controls on air pollution by targeting acid rain, toxic air pollutants, and ozone depletion, and introduced a cap-and-trade system to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions.

Clean Water Act of 1972

A U.S. law that regulates the discharge of pollutants into waters and sets water quality standards to protect rivers, lakes, and wetlands, enforced primarily by the Environmental Protection Agency.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (Superfund)

A U.S. law that created a federal program to clean up hazardous waste sites and hold responsible parties liable for contamination, managed by the Environmental Protection Agency.

Endangered Species Act of 1973

A U.S. law that protects threatened and endangered species and their habitats by prohibiting harm, trade, or destruction, and requires recovery plans to help populations rebound, enforced by agencies like the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007

A U.S. law aimed at improving energy efficiency and reducing dependence on foreign oil by increasing fuel economy standards, promoting renewable fuels, and supporting energy-efficient technologies and products.

Energy Policy Act of 1992

A U.S. law designed to reduce dependence on foreign energy by promoting energy efficiency, encouraging renewable energy use, and supporting alternative fuels, while also expanding competition in the electricity market.

Energy Policy Act of 2005

A U.S. law that promotes domestic energy production and infrastructure by providing tax incentives and subsidies for oil, gas, nuclear, and renewable energy, while also encouraging energy efficiency and modernizing the nation’s electricity grid.

Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972

A U.S. law that strengthened federal regulation of pesticide use by requiring registration, labeling, and safety standards to protect human health and the environment, administered by the Environmental Protection Agency.

Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976

A U.S. law that governs the management of public lands, requiring they be used for multiple purposes (such as recreation, grazing, and resource development) while being preserved for future generations, primarily managed by the Bureau of Land Management.

Food Quality Protection Act of 1996

A U.S. law that updated pesticide regulations by setting stricter safety standards for residues on food, with special protections for infants and children, and requiring regular reassessment of pesticide tolerances, enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency.

General Mining Law of 1872

A U.S. law that allows individuals and companies to explore for and extract minerals on public lands, often without paying royalties to the federal government, reflecting a policy of encouraging westward expansion and resource development.

Inflation Reduction Act of 2022

A U.S. law focused on reducing inflation, lowering healthcare costs, and addressing climate change by investing in clean energy, promoting energy efficiency, and allowing the Medicare to negotiate certain prescription drug prices.

Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act of 2021

A U.S. law that provides major federal funding to rebuild and modernize infrastructure, including roads, bridges, public transit, water systems, broadband, and clean energy, aiming to improve economic growth and resilience.

Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1964

A U.S. law that created a fund to support the conservation of land and water resources by using revenues from offshore oil and gas drilling to finance the purchase and protection of public lands, parks, and recreation areas.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969

A U.S. law that requires federal agencies to assess the environmental impacts of major projects before approval, often through Environmental Impact Statements (EIS), to ensure informed decision-making and environmental protection.

National Forest Management Act of 1976

A U.S. law that requires the development of long-term management plans for national forests, ensuring sustainable use of resources like timber, wildlife, and recreation, overseen by the U.S. Forest Service.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976

A U.S. law that regulates the management and disposal of solid and hazardous waste, setting standards for waste treatment, storage, and disposal to protect human health and the environment, enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency.

Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974

A U.S. law that protects public drinking water by setting national standards for contaminants and requiring water systems to monitor and treat water to ensure it is safe for human consumption, enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency.

Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976

A U.S. law that gives the government authority to regulate the production, use, and disposal of industrial chemicals to protect human health and the environment, overseen by the Environmental Protection Agency.

Wilderness Act of 1964

A U.S. law that created the National Wilderness Preservation System, protecting designated federal lands in their natural condition by limiting development, roads, and human impact to preserve ecosystems for future generations.

central intelligence agency (cia)

The federal agency established in 1947 to coordinate the nation’s intelligence activities and to collect, evaluate, and distribute information and analysis related to national security.

cold war

The period of persistent hostility, but not overt “hot” war, between the former Soviet Union and the United States that lasted from 1945 until the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991.

defense policy

A major component of foreign policy that encompasses the conduct of military affairs, such as choice of weapons systems and deployment of troops. Intended to achieve policy goals set by civilian policymakers in the White House and Congress.

department of homeland security (dhs)

The federal executive department created in 2002 and charged with diverse responsibilities related to protection of the nation from security threats.

deterrence

foreign policy

A policy strategy used most often in national defense in which the object is to deter or prevent a potential enemy from taking actions harmful to the nation. The strategy of nuclear deterrence, for example, was based on the assumption that no nation would engage in a preemptive, or first-strike, war because the likely retaliation would be too massive to accept.

globalization

The growing interrelationship of all nations through global trade. Facilitates the development of an international marketplace in an increasingly connected world.

international monetary fund (imf)

An international financial institution that promotes international trade by increasing the exchange stability of the major currencies. Similar to the World Bank, it also lends money to developing nations.

marshall plan

The plan adopted in 1947 for the economic rebuilding of Europe after the end of World War II. Named for Secretary of State George Marshall.

national security agency (nsa)

A secretive intelligence agency created in 1952 to coordinate, direct, and perform activities to protect U.S. government information systems as well as assess a diversity of foreign communications related to national security.

national security council (nsc)

A White House advisory body that focuses on issues of national security. Chaired by the president, it includes the vice president, the secretary of state, the secretary of the Treasury, the secretary of defense, and the assistant to the president for national security affairs (also called the president’s national security adviser).

north atlantic treaty organization (nato)

A formal alliance of the United States, Canada, and Western European nations created in Washington, DC, in 1949 to pursue common security interests. During the cold war, NATO stood in opposition to actions by the Warsaw Pact, representing the communist nations of Central and Eastern Europe.

nuclear proliferation

The spread of nuclear weapons knowledge and technology to new nations such as India and Pakistan. The United States and other nuclear powers often express concern over such proliferation because it may increase security risks.

realpolitik

A hardheaded or practical appraisal of national interests that emphasizes competition among nation-states.

terrorism

Usually defined as the unconventional or unlawful use or threat of violence to achieve political or social ends. Terrorism encompasses the strategies and tactics of diverse groups around the world.

united nations (un)

Established in 1945 by the United States and fifty other nations as a global association of governments to facilitate cooperation in international law, security, economic development, and social equity. Headquartered in New York City.

un general assembly

Made up of all member states, it oversees the budget of the United Nations, appoints the nonpermanent members to the Security Council, receives reports from other parts of the United Nations, and makes recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions. All member nations have equal representation.

un security council

The most important of the UN policymaking bodies, which focuses on maintaining peace and security. The council has a rotating membership of ten nations selected from the UN General Assembly in addition to five permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

us agency for international development (asaid)

The principal office charged with the distribution and management of U.S. economic aid, or foreign aid. USAID is an

independent federal agency that works closely with the Department of State.

world bank

One of the most important international financial institutions, the bank provides loans and grants to governments of low- and middle-income countries for certain kinds of development projects.

world trade organization

The WTO was established in 1995 and administers trade agreements among about 150 nations to settle conflicts over trade disputes. Its existence reflects the global marketplace of the twenty-first century.

Economic Cooperation Act of 1948 (the Marshall Plan)

A U.S. program that provided financial aid to Western European countries after World War II to help rebuild their economies, stabilize governments, and prevent the spread of communism during the early Cold War.

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (FISA)

A U.S. law that established a legal framework for government surveillance of foreign spies and suspected terrorists inside the United States, requiring court approval from the secret Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court to conduct electronic monitoring.

Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004

A U.S. law passed after the 9/11 attacks that restructured the intelligence community by creating the Director of National Intelligence, improving information sharing between agencies, and strengthening counterterrorism efforts.

National Security Act of 1947

A U.S. law that reorganized the country’s military and intelligence structure after World War II by creating the Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the National Security Council to coordinate national security policy.

Security and Accountability For Every Port Act of 2006 (SAFE Port Act)

A U.S. law that strengthens port and maritime security by improving cargo screening, enhancing inspection of shipping containers, and increasing coordination to prevent terrorism and illegal trafficking through U.S. ports.

Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001 (USA PATRIOT Act)

A U.S. law passed after the September 11 attacks that expanded government surveillance and law enforcement powers to detect and prevent terrorism, including increased authority to monitor communications, access records, and track financial activity.

USA Freedom Act of 2015

A U.S. law that reformed parts of the USA PATRIOT Act by limiting bulk collection of telephone metadata by the government, increasing transparency of surveillance programs, and strengthening oversight of intelligence-gathering activities.