PSC 142: Exam 1 Terms

nature

biological beings governed by the same biological rules that other species are governed by and our genes drive who we are

maturation

unfolding of increasingly complex social skills and abilities

nurture

environment and learning

multifinality

the divergence of developmental paths in which two individuals start out similarly but end at very different points (eg: same affluent school, different success)

equifinality

the convergence of developmental paths in which children follow very different paths to reach the same developmental point (eg: differently affluent schools, same success)

psychosocial theory:

development depends on accomplishing the most salient psychological tasks at each stage of development (Erik Erikson)

id

instinctual drives

ego

the rational component of the personality

superego

the personality component that is the internalization of parental or societal values, morals, and roles

classical conditioning

a new stimulus is repeatedly paired with a familiar stimulus until an individual learns to respond to the new stimulus in the same was as the familiar stimulus (Pavlov, Watson)

operant conditioning

the consequences of naturally-occurring behavior; rewards increase the likelihood that a behavior will recur, but punishment decreases that likelihood (Skinner)

drive reduction theory

the association of stimulus and response in classical and operant conditioning results in learning only if it is accompanied by reduction of basic primary drives such as hunger and thirst (Hull)

cognitive social learning theory

reintroduction of the person into the stimulus —> response equation by focusing on cognitive steps in learning through observation (observational learning) (Bandura)

transactional process

reciprocal determination of behavior

social information processing theory

an explanation of a person’s social behavior in terms of the individual’s assessment/evaluation of the social situation as a guide in deciding on a course of social action

assimilation

applying an existing schema to a new experience (Piaget)

accommodation

modifying an existing schema to fit a new experience (Piaget)

sociocultural theory

development emerges from interactions with more skilled people and the institutions and tools provided by the culture (Vygotsky)

zone of proximal development

difference between children’s level of performance while working alone and while working with more experienced partners

scaffolding

providing support to children as they learn something new

systems theory

describes how children’s development is affected by the interacting components of multiple systems

ethological theory

behavior must be viewed in a particular way context and as having adaptive or survival value

critical period

specific time in an organism’s development during which external factors have a unique/irreversible impact on development

evolutionary developmental theory

focus on behaviors that ensured past survival of the species

life history theory

the order of key events over the life course is influenced by natural selection to produce the largest possible number of surviving offspring

life span theories

people are open to change across their lives

normative events

encountered by everyone at X age

non-normative events

unexpected/do not happen to all

historical events

common to people in the same cohort

age cohorts

people who were born in the same time period and share historical experiences

Psychodynamic Theories

• strengths: emphasis on early experience/family/social interaction on behavior / identified attachment/gender/roles/aggression/morality

• weaknesses: difficult to test empirically, not based on children, focus on sexuality too narrow (Freud) / difficult to test empirically, mechanisms for transitioning across stages not identified (Erikson)

Traditional Learning Theories

• strengths: explaining emotion/behavior modification

• weaknesses: “one size fits all” perspective / neglects biological/individual differences

Cognitive Learning Theories

• strengths: understanding of several areas (aggression/self-control) / practical applications / strong empirical evidence

• weaknesses: not very developmental in scope / less attention to individual differences

Information Processing Theories

• strengths: emphasis on links between cognition/social behavior / clear specification of social decision-making steps

• weaknesses: not clear on likes with age / less attention to emotion / too much emphasis on cognitive processes as deliberate vs. automatic

Cognitive Development Theories

• strengths: links between cognition/social reactions / view the world through one perspective

• weaknesses: Piaget doesn’t acknowledge interactions with others / Vygotsky doesn’t provide way to measure the zone of proximal development

Systems Theory

• strengths: attention to broad influential concepts / bridge to other disciplines

• weaknesses: doesn’t explain processes / doesn’t different contexts’ influences

Biological Theories

• strengths: discoveries (attachment/group formation/dominance hierarchies) / studying in natural environment / adaptive rule of several behaviors

• weaknesses: more descriptive rather than mechanism

Life Span Theories

• strengths: emphasis on life-long process/historical events/adults affect children’s development

• weaknesses: emphasis on older population can limit influence on child development

observational / survey research / case studies

describe/test associations between variables/constructs / do not establish causation

experiment

isolate/measure the effect of one variable / manipulate the environment / establish causation

correlational methods

describe.a relationship between non-manipulated measured variables

longitudinal designs

compare different groups of individuals (different age levels) at approximately the same point in time

cross-sequential design

combines the longitudinal/cross-sectional approaches by studying several cohorts over time

direct observation

researchers go into real settings / bring participants into laboratory to observe behaviors of interest

naturalistic observation

collected in the child’s natural settings without interfering with activities

reactivity

the change in a person’s behavior because they are being observed

observer bias

tendency to be influenced by knowledge about the research design/hypothesis

qualitative study

uses non-statistical analysis of materials to gain in-depth understand (eg: interviews)

quantitative study

statistical analysis of numerical data

positive association

high values of one variable occur with high values of the other

negative association

high values of one variable occur with low values of the other

correlation coefficient

numerical estimate of how closely two variables are related to each other / direction of the relation

means comparison

use t-test or ANOVA to compare the average performance between two or more groups

gene

a portion of DNA located at a particular site on a chromosome / coding for the production of a specific type of protein

genotype

the particular set of genes a person inherits from parents

phenotype

the visible expression of the person’s particular physical/behavioral characteristics / created by the interaction of a person’s genotype with the environment

human behavior genetics

the study of the relative influences of heredity/environment on individual differences in traits and abilities

adoption studies

compare adopted children to biological parents (genetic connection) and adoptive parents (environmental connection)

twin studies

compare similar studies between identical/fraternal twins

monozygotic twins

identical twins created when a single zygote splits into two embryos

reaction range

the range of possible developmental outcomes established by a person’s genotype in reaction to the environment in which development takes place

gene-environment correlation

genetic makeup helps shape the environment

passive [gene-environment correlation]

the environment created by parents with particular genetic characteristics encourages the expression of these tendencies in their children

evocative [gene-environment correlation]

people’s inherited tendencies to evoke certain environmental responses

active (niche-picking)

people’s genes encourage them to seek out experiences compatible with their inherited tendencies

gene-environment interaction (G x E) model

people in the same genetic environment are affected differently depending on their genetic makeup

temperament

an individual’s typical mode of response including activity level, emotional intensity, attention span / particularly used to describe infants’/children’ behavior

activity [temperament]

level of gross motor activity including rate / extent of locomotion

shyness [temperament]

behavioral inhibition to novelty/challenge (especially social)

high-intensity pleasure [temperament]

pleasure derived from activities involving high intensity/novelty

positive affect [temperament]

expressing positive affect in response to change in stimulus intensity/rate/etc.

impulsivity [temperament]

speed of response initiation

neurochemical molecules

• extroversion linked to availability of dopamine

• individual differences in effortful control/impulsivity/proneness to frustration linked to activity in anterior/lateral prefrontal areas

• shy infants / children highly reactive to unfamiliar events linked to more activation in amygdala than bold children

A Monozygotic Twin Difference Study (Wertz et al., 2025)

MZ twins with more affection = more open/conscientious/agreeable young adults compared to their twin with less affection