unit 3 AOS 2: learning and memory theory

Behaviourist Approaches:

learning occurs directly by interacting with the external environment. Focus on behaviours that can be directly observed and recorded. 2 behaviourist approaches to learning are: Classical Conditioning (Learning through association) and Operant Conditioning (Learning through rewards and punishment).

What is Conditioning

process of learning, occurs through associations between a stimulus and a behaviour response. Learning occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli. (A smile=friendly behaviour, working at a supermarket = getting paid). These examples involve learning through conditioning by linking events that occur together.

Classical conditioning:

type of learning by which organisms come to associate stimuli, and consequently, to anticipate events. It is a type of conditioning that involves learning that two events are associated after we experience them occurring together on several occasions.

Characteristics of Classical Conditioning:

-              Nature of the response: Reflexive, there is an involuntary response to a stimulus.

-              Timing of the stimulus and response: Stimulus comes before the response is made. Meaning something must be presented before a response is made.

-              Role of the learner: Passive, the learner does not need to apply effort for two stimuli to become associated.

Ivan Pavlov and Pavlov’s Dogs Experiment:

Classical conditioning was first proposed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov in 1899. He was particularly interested in the role of salivation as a reflex and the response to the presentation of food. Pavlov started to notice that dog was salivating at sight of food, sight or sound of lab technician. The association made between the food and a new stimulus (the sight/sound of the lab technician) is the essence of the process of classical conditioning. Pavlov’s subsequent experiments provided clear evidence of a type of learning that was based on repeated association of two different stimuli.

Elements of Classical Conditioning:

Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response. In P’s experiment: the sound of a bell.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that produces a naturally occurring, automatic response. In P’s experiment: the presentation of food.

Unconditioned Response (UCR): The response that automatically occurs when the UCS is presented. In P’s experiment: salivation in response to food.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A stimulus that eventually becomes associated with the UCS, and because of the learning, will evoke a response. In P’s experiment: sound of a bell.

Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus. In P’s experiment: salivation in response to the sound of the bell.

The Three-Phase Model of Classical Conditioning:

Phase 1: Before Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus = No response. Unconditioned Stimulus = Unconditioned Response.

Phase 2: During Conditioning (referred to as the acquisition phase): Neutral Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus = Unconditioned Response. The stimuli are paired together repeatedly, with the NS being presented just before the UCS.

Phase 3: After Conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus (previously the Neutral Stimulus) = Conditioned Response. Learning is demonstrated when the Conditioned Stimulus is presented alone and it elicits the Conditioned Response.

Explanation of the Three-Phase Model A Template: Before conditioning, the NS elicits no response, while the UCS leads to the UCR. During conditioning, the NS is repeatedly presented just before the UCS, which leads to the UCR. After conditioning, the CS now leads to the CR, even when presented alone (i.e. without the UCS).

Example:

Phase 1: Before Conditioning: NS (song) = No response, UCS (beach)= UCR (positive attitude in response to the beach).

Phase 2: During Conditioning: NS (song) + UCS (beach) = UCR (positive attitude). Remember, the NS is presented just before the UCS.

Phase 3: After Conditioning: CS (song) = CR (positive attitude in response to the song).

OPERANT CONDITIONING

A three-phase learning process that involves an antecedent, behaviour, and consequence, whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will reoccur.  An example of a behaviourist approach to learning.

Nature of the response: Non-reflexive – voluntary – consciously carries out a behaviour.

Timing of the stimulus and response: Reinforcement occurs after the correct behaviour is carried out. Punishment occurs after the incorrect behaviour is carried out.

Role of the learner: Active role: learner plays a role in choosing to respond to receive a particular reward or avoid punishment.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON OPERANT CONDITIONING:

Developed after classical conditioning. Developed in 1930s by B.F. Skinner. He created a device called the operant chamber (‘Skinner box’). This device ensured that test animals (rats and pigeons) were not exposed to external environment, and could be controlled by experimenter alone. Skinner found that the consequences of an animal’s behaviour (such as an electric shock or food) would influence the likelihood that the behaviour would be repeated.

THREE PHRASES:

TYPES OF CONSEQUENCES: REINFORCEMENT: 

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring. This can occur in two ways: 

-              Positive reinforcement (addition of a desirable stimulus) = increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

-              Negative reinforcement (removal of an undesirable stimulus) = increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

TYPES OF CONSEQUENCES: PUNISHMENT:

a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.  Occurs in two ways:

• Positive punishment (addition of an undesirable stimulus) = decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring.

• Negative punishment (removal of a desirable stimulus) = decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring. Referred to as response cost, involves taking a stimulus away because of a particular response. Removal of a valued stimulus → there is a cost for making a response (if you get a speeding fine your money (a valued stimulus) is taken away from you.).

TYPES OF CONSEQUENCES:

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT:

TIMING: Reinforcers should be presented as close in time to the desired response as possible.

ORDER OF PRESENTATION:  The reinforcement must be presented after the desired response. Helps ensure that the organism learns the consequences of a particular response.

APPROPRIATENESS:

Reinforcers: provide a pleasing consequence for its recipient. (Obtaining a place in university would not be an appropriate reinforcer for someone who intends to work in their families business after year 12.).

Punishment: provide a consequence that is unpleasant. (A talkative attention-starved year 8 student may not respond to being verbally reprimanded in class as this may lead to increasing the talkative behaviour). Punishment must ‘fit the crime’ – it cannot be too severe, or it may cause fear. It only tells the person or animal the ‘wrong’ behaviour and not what is the right or desired response.

marking guide for OPERANT CONDITIONING, and similarities and difference between operant and classical.

Marking: 4 marks

One for antecedent:

One for behaviour:

One for consequence:

One for explaining what type and effect on behaviour: this is negative reinforcement and will increase the likelihood of behaviour being repeated.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING:

Process of learning involves watching behaviour of a model and the consequences associated, then decides whether to imitate. Can be indirectly conditioned by watching someone else’s conditioning.  Referred to as vicarious conditioning. (experienced through watching other people’s activities, rather than doing the activities yourself).

Social-cognitive approaches to learning:

propose that learning takes place in a social setting and involves various cognitive processes. Linked to the social learning theory (first proposed by psychologist Albert Bandura) 

Albert Bandura (1960s) :The “Bobo Doll” Experiment:  

The “Bobo Doll” Experiment:  Bandura conducted studies investigating how children (pre-school aged children) learn by imitating others (adults interacting with a Bobo doll). From studies suggested that learning occurs in a social setting and behaviours can be learnt by watching and imitating others in these settings. Experiments involved determining if pre-school children can learn aggressive behaviour through observational learning.  Then proposed the Social Learning Theory:  Behaviours are learned through observation and imitation of others.

-              Main Findings: Learning can occur through observation of models. Children likely to model adult behaviour (regardless of if they are live, video, cartoon). Live is most influential. Reinforcement increases likelihood that observationally learned behaviours will be reproduced. Controlling aggression can be learned by observing aggressive models being punished. Boys are more likely to be physically aggressive than girls.

Model and the learner

Model: individual who is performing the behaviour that the learner observes.

Learner: active role in learning, they need to watch and pay attention to model to be able to imitate the behaviour.

Stages of observational learning:

Must progress through five stages,(attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, and reinforcement).

ATTENTION:

To learn through observation, we must pay active attention to the model’s behaviour, actively focus on the model’s behaviour. May be influenced by several factors: sensory capabilities, motivation and interest level, situation, the kinds of distractions, and characteristics of the model.

Likely to imitate models who have the following characteristics: perceived positively, liked, has a high status, perceived similarities between model and observer, familiar, behaviour is visible and stands out, Model is demonstrating behaviour which the observer perceives as being able to imitate.

RETENTION:

Memory, important role in observational learning. Learnt behaviour must be stored in memory as mental representation so that the observed learning can be utilised later. More meaningful that image, the more accurately we will be able to replicate the behaviour.

Responses learned by modelling are often not needed until sometime after they have been acquired.

REPRODUCTION:

Learner must have physical and mental ability to convert these mental representations into actions. (a child must be old enough to be able to use the kitchen equipment for making pancakes).

MOTIVATION:

Learner must want to imitate the learnt behaviour. Depend on whether learner believes that there will be a desirable consequence (reinforcement) for reproducing learnt behaviour.

• Intrinsic motivations occur from within the individual, such as the desire to perform well on an exam.

• Extrinsic motivations occur from factors that are external to the individual, such as the desire to receive praise from your teacher for doing well on an exam.

REINFORCEMENT:

Three aspects of reinforcement: External reinforcement, Vicarious reinforcement, Self-reinforcement.  Once the learner has successfully performed behaviour, receiving reinforcement will increase likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.

example of OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING:

Example: Jeanie sees her older sister Molly playing on the monkey bars, able to swing from one bar to the next. With reference to observational learning, explain how Jeanie would be able to learn this behaviour.

·       Attention: Jeanie must actively focus when Molly is swinging on the monkey bars, by paying close attention to how Molly swings from one bar to the next.

·       Retention: Jeanie must create a mental representation of Molly swinging on the monkey bars and store it to memory.

·       Reproduction: Jeanie must have the physical and mental ability to be able to successfully carry out the behaviour of swinging on the monkey bars

·       Motivation: Jeanie must want to be able to successfully swing on the monkey bars.

·       Reinforcement: If Jeanie successfully swings on the monkey bars, she should be reinforced. Molly might run up to her and give her a hug (external reinforcement).

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Approaches to Learning: Learning as a multimodal system of knowledge (systems of knowledge):

Developed by communities working together and sharing traditional expertise and knowledge. Informed by culture, including who can learn what and where. Consist of information that is highly relevant to day-to-day living and survival. Informed by spiritual and ancestral knowledge (Dreaming stories/Dreamtime Stories). Consist of information that is highly interconnected, are patterned (created) on Country.

 

Learning embedded in Relationships:  

Relationships between concepts.

Relationships between learner and teacher.

Relationships between individuals, families, and communities.

Relationships between all the above and Country.

 

Connection to culture

Connection to country

Connection to community

 

Learnt that different knowledge is deeply interconnected within complex systems and that learning is embedded within Country. In this way, learning is holistic (looking at the whole system) and involves understanding the relationships between things, living beings, spirituality, and how they all interconnect. Learning begins with the relationship between teacher and learner and understanding the connections between people.

Multi-modal:

First Nations learning is not restricted to a classroom with one teacher and multiple students. Is relational, interconnected and takes place in the community.

Story- Sharing:

Learning takes place through narrative and story-sharing. Sharing Dreaming stories to communicate complex knowledge relating to the natural world and survival.

Learning maps:

Planning and visualising processes and knowledge.

Non- Verbal:

Sharing knowledge through non-verbal means (dance, art, observation). Traditional dances where the movements reflect the patterns of certain animals.

Symbols & Images:

 Learning through images, symbols, and metaphors. Creating artwork that uses symbols to represent landmarks, animals or objects.

Land Links:

Learning and knowledge are inherently linked to nature, land, and Country. Content is linked to geographical landmarks and features.

Non-Linear:

Thinking creatively and taking knowledge from different viewpoints to build new understandings. Learn about history by comparing common aspects of each society.

Deconstruct/Reconstruct:

Breaking down a concept from whole to parts and then applying it. Learners engage by watching and then doing.

Community Links: 

Connecting learning to local values, needs, and knowledge. Learning is shared with others and used to meet the needs of the community.

example question for 8 ways of knowing, and suggested answer.

Using knowledge of theory: In VCE Psychology exams, to answer a question about or in terms of suggests that you are using your knowledge of a concept or theory to explain something. Responses should use the relevant psychological terminology.

Question: An Indigenous Elder is teaching a child within their community how to fish, by using some of the ways of knowing. The Elder starts with a story about the importance of fish to the land and draws a picture in the sand that their ancestors drew for them as they share the story. During this yarning session, the elder jumps to their feet and starts dancing around as they act out how to carve a fishing spear and how to use a fishing spear. The Elder and the child then sit and listen to the weather in silence for a while. The Elder then starts singing a song related to their fishing expedition as they pick up a spear and begin throwing it into the shallows of the water. The pair then sit and yarn a little longer about the type of fish in that water and its significance to that area of land. The young child then picks up the spear to practise his fishing.

In reference to ‘Indigenous ways of knowing’ explain how the child is being viewed as part of the system with knowledge by the Elder in their community.

Suggested answer for full marks: Non-verbal ways of learning use body movements (kinaesthetic skills), facial expressions, gestures and dance to help Indigenous people to think and learn about fishing. Repetition of the same movements reinforces memory and learning. For example, the Elder’s dance could be created and performed to help the child learn about the way in which to throw a spear into the water.