Chemistry

Nuclear Fission

a very heavy nucleus splits into more-stable nuclei of intermediate mass.

Chain Reaction

a reaction in which the material that starts the reaction is also one of the products and can start another reaction.

Critical mass

The minimum amount of nuclide that provides the number of neutrons needed to sustain a chain reaction

Nuclear Reactors

use controlled-fission chain reactions to produce energy and radioactive nuclides.

Nuclear power plants

use energy as heat from nuclear reactors to produce electrical energy.

Shielding

radiation-absorbing material that is used to decrease exposure to radiation, especially gamma rays, from nuclear reactors

Control rods

neutron-absorbing rods that help control the reaction by limiting the number of free neutrons

Moderator

used to slow down the fast neutrons produced by fission.

Nuclear fusion

low-mass nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus

Organic compounds

covalently bonded compounds containing carbon, excluding carbonates and oxides.

Catenation

the covalent bonding of an element to itself to form chains or rings.

Hydrocarbon

composed of only carbon and hydrogen; they are the simplest organic compounds.

Isomer

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structures

Structural formula

indicates the number and types of atoms present in a molecule and also shows the bonding arrangement of the atoms.

Structural/constitutional Isomer

Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas/order.

Geometric isomer

isomers in which the order of atom bonding is the same but the arrangement of atoms in space is different.

Cis

A geometric isomer with the same atoms on the same side

Trans

A geometric isomer with different atoms on the same side

Saturated hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons in which each carbon atom in the molecule forms four single covalent bonds with other atoms.

Alkanes

Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds

Formula : CnH2n+2

Homologous series

Compounds that differ from one another by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms (in alkanes)

Cycloalkanes

alkanes in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a ring, or cyclic, structure

Formula : CnH2n

Alkyl groups

groups of atoms that are formed when one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane molecule.

Natural gas

fossil fuel composed primarily of alkanes containing one to four carbon atoms.

Liquid alkane example

gasoline and kerosene

Solid alkane example

Paraffin wax

Petroleum

a complex mixture of different hydrocarbons that varies greatly in composition, and is a major source of alkanes

Fractional distillation

components of a mixture are separated on the basis of boiling point, by condensation of vapor in a fractionating column.

Unsaturated hydrocarbon

hydrocarbons in which not all carbon atoms have four single covalent bonds.

Alkene

hydrocarbons that contain double covalent bonds.

Formula : CnH2n

Ethene

a plant hormone that triggers fruit ripening, its the smallest alkene, gas at room temp

Alkyne

Hydrocarbons with triple covalent bonds

Formula : CnH2n-2

Aromatic hydrocarbons

hydrocarbons that have six-membered carbon rings and delocalized electrons.

Benzene

the primary aromatic hydrocarbon, a resonance hybrid, C6H6

Functional group

an atom or group of atoms that is responsible for the specific properties of an organic compound.

Alchohol

organic compounds that contain one or more hydroxyl groups. (OH)theyre water soluble and form hydrogen bonds, examples are lotions creams and cosmetics

Alkyl halides

organic compounds in which one or more halogen atoms—fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine—are substituted for one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon.
Examples : Chloroflorocarbons and Teflon

Ethers

organic compounds in which two hydrocarbon groups are bonded to the same atom of oxygen. Not very reactive, used as solvents

Aldehydes

Organic compounds in which the carbonyl group is attached to a carbon atom at the end of a carbon-carbon chain

Ketones

Organic compounds in which the carbonyl group is attached to carbon atoms within the chain

Amines

Organic compounds that can be considered derivatives of ammonia

Carboxylic acid

Organic compounds that contain the carbonyl functional group

Esters

Organic compounds that have carboxylic acid groups in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an alkyl group

Substitution reaction

A reaction in which one or more atoms replace one another

Additional reaction

A reaction where two parts of a molecule are added to an unsaturated molecule increasing its saturation

Hydrogenation

The addition of hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated molecule

Condensation reaction

A reaction in which two molecules or parts of the same molecule combine usually removing water

When repeated a chain of amino acids is formed

Elimination reaction

A reaction in which a simple molecule such as water or ammonia is formed from adjacent carbon atoms of a larger molecule

Alcohol (Sulfuric acid)—> alkene + water

Polymers

Large molecules made up of many small units joined to each other through organic reactions

Monomers

Small units that make up polymers

Copolymer

A polymer made up of two or more different monomers

Natural polymers

Cellulose, starch, proteins

Synthetic polymers

Plastic

Additional polymer

A polymer formed by addition energy monomers that contain a double bond

Condensation polymer

A polymer formed by condensation reactions

Carbohydrates/ Saccharides

molecules, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a 1:2:1 ratio, that provide nutrients to the cells of living organisms. Produced via photosynthesis

Formula : Cm(H2O)n

Monosaccharide

A simple sugar that is the basic subunit of a carbohydrate. Contains 3-7 carbon atoms, sweet-tasting. Very soluble in water.

Examples: glucose, fructose

Glucose

the most abundant and important monosaccharide in nature, because it provides energy for cellular activities.

Fructose “fruit sugar”

The sweetest naturally occurring sugar, found in honey, fruits, corn syrup. Sweeter than table sugar.

Disaccharide/sucrose

A sugar that consists of two monosaccharide units that are joined together. Soluble in water.

Examples: sugar cane, beets, lactose

Condensation reaction example

Glucose + Fructose —> Sucrose + Water

Glucose + Galactose —> Lactose + Water

Hydrolysis

a chemical reaction between water and another substance to form two or more new substances.

Sucrose + water —> Glucose + Fructose (creates a sweet taste)

Lactose + water —> Glucose + Galactose

(If body is unable to do this = lactose intolerance)

Polysaccharide

a carbohydrate made up of long chains of simple sugars. Generally insoluble in water

Lipids

a type of biochemical that does not dissolve in water, has a high percentage of C and H atoms, and is soluble in nonpolar solvents.

Examples : Long-chain fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids, and cholesterol

Found in : dairy products, grains, meats, and oils.

Fatty acids

consist of a long, nonpolar hydrocarbon “tail” and a polar carboxylic acid functional group at the “head.”

Saturated fatty acids have no carbon–carbon double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.

Saponification

When a fat combines with NaOH, an acid-base, and a salt and water form.

Amino acid

organic molecules that contain two functional groups: a basic —NH2 amino group and an acidic —COOH carboxylic acid group.

Protein

an organic biological polymer, made up of polypeptide chains of 50 or more amino acids, that is an important building block of all cells.

Fibrous protein

Proteins that are insoluble in water and are long, thin, and physically strong. They give strength and protection to structures in living organisms.

Examples: keratin, fibrin, collagen

Globular proteins

Proteins that are generally soluble in water and are twisted and folded into a globe-like shape. They regulate body functions, catalyze reactions, and transport substances

Examples: insulin, hemoglobin, casein

Enzyme

A protein that catalyzes a biochemical reaction.

Most enzymes are water-soluble, globular proteins.

Remember that catalysts speed up a reaction by lowering the activation energy and are not changed in the reaction.

Denaturation

a change in a protein’s characteristic three-dimensional shape due to changes in its secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.