Paper 1&2 English Terminology

Amelioration

The process by which a word's meaning becomes more positive over time, reflecting societal changes in perception.

Deficit Model

A theory positing that women's language is inherently inferior to men's, often leading to a lack of power in communication contexts.

Difference Model

Men and women have innate differences in the style and function of their speech and writing

Dominance Model

Suggests that language differences stem from the societal dominance of men, influencing how men and women communicate differently.

Diversity Model

Gender isn't the only thing influencing men and women's language use, rather their language arise affected by the groups they belong to.

Genderlect

This particular dialect used by men and women depending on their gender

Hedge

Words or phrases that soften statements, making them less assertive, often used by women to avoid confrontation.

Heteronomativity and how langauge reinforces it

The belief that heterosexuality is the norm default sexual orientation. Reinforced through assumptions (e.g. “Do you have a boyfriend?”) and lack of inclusive terms.

Interruption

Speaking at the same time as another

Pejoration/pejorative term

The meaning of a word/phrase becomes increasingly negative over time. Used as terms for criticism.

Tag Questions

Short questions added to statements, often used by women to seek affirmation or agreement, reflecting conversational styles.

Up talk

Rising intonation used at the end of declarative statements.

Rapport Talk

A style of communication typically associated with women, focusing on building relationships rather than conveying information.

Accent

Refers to variations in pronunciation linked to geographical regions, influencing how speakers are perceived.

Covert Prestige

The hidden value associated with non-standard language varieties, often within specific social groups, challenging traditional notions of 'correct' language.

Code Switching

The practice of alternating between languages or dialects in conversation, often reflecting social dynamics.

Convergence

The phenomenon where different accents or dialects become more similar over time, often due to social interaction.

Dialect

Encompasses variations in vocabulary and grammar associated with specific regions, reflecting cultural identity.

Descriptivism

No prescribing rules, promoting understanding of linguistic diversity. Language change is good

Dialect Levelling

refers to the convergence of language forms from different regions, leading to a reduction in linguistic diversity.

Overt Prestige

The high social status, authority, and "correctness" associated with standard dialects, formal language, or RP

Phonetics

The study of how speech sounds are made and achieved

prescriptivism

Doesn't like language change

Social Mobility

Describes the ability of individuals to move between social classes, which can influence language use and dialect.

Accommodation Theory

Posits that speakers adjust their language style based on their audience, either converging or diverging from their speech.

Case studiies

Norwich and Bradford: In words such as "city" the final sound is pronounced /i/.

Polari

Gay slang language

Standard English

The form of english langauge widely accepted as the correct form os speaking and writting

Ethnolect

A language variety associated with a specific ethnic group, reflecting cultural identity.

Lingua-Franca

Language that's adopted as the common tongue between native speakers.

Etymology

The study of the origin of words.

Blending

Words are abbreviated and joined together forming a new word

Clipping

Words are shortened and the shortened form becomes the norm

Compounding

Words are combined together forming neologismms. Can be hyphenated

loan word

A word that has been borrowed into a lexicon

Power Asymmetry

Highlights the imbalance of power in conversations, influencing language choices.

idiolect

Refers to the unique language use of an individual, influenced by personal experiences and social interactions.

Discourse Community

A group sharing common interests and beliefs, leading to similar language use patterns.

Multiethnolect

A linguistic variety that incorporates features from multiple languages within a multicultural context, reflecting diverse identities.

Broadening

A linguistic phenomenon where a word's meanings become more generalized, expanding its usage.

What is the 'damp spoon syndrome'?

A metaphor describing language change as caused by laziness or sloppiness.

Diachronic Change

The historical evolution of language over time, examining changes in structure and usage.

Old English

5th centuary: The langauges of britain were celtic. English developed from the speech of the Angles, Jutes and Saxons. Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse had significant influency; vocab being drawn from both. English largely phonetic, with little consistency in writing

Middle English (11th Century)

French became the language of the court due to the Norman invasion, while Latin was used in writing; English gained prominence through writers like Chaucer.

Early Modern English (15th Century)

The introduction of the printing press by Caxton standardized English, with the South-East dialect becoming the basis for this standardization.

Modern English (18th Century)

Rapid growth of vocabulary through borrowing from Latin and Greek, influenced by the British Empire; grammarians began to prescribe correct usage.

Present English (20th Century)

Continued evolution influenced by media, technology, and global travel, establishing English as a global language.

Concrete Noun

Object

Abstract Noun

Ideas/Feelings

Possesive Pronoun

Mine, Yours,hers, ours

Descriptive Adjective

Enormous, green and poisonous

Infinitive Verb

I want to… yell win etc

Manner Adverb

Something that tells us how something happened.

Deontic Modality

Necessisity, Permission and Obligation

Epistemic Modality

Possibility, Probability, Certainty

Auxiliary Verb (aux)

can, will, may, is, has, does, shall

Euphemism

A mild/ indirect word to replace a phrase that’s too harsh, blunt or embarassing.

Dysphemism

A derogatory or unpleasant term used instead of a pleasant or neutral one. E.g. pig= policeman, bullshit= lies

Complex Sentences

using a subordinating conjunction (e.g., because, although, if, when) or a relative pronoun (e.g., which, who (these are interrogative pronouns), that)

portmanteau

A word formed by blending 2 words: Brunch, Breakfast

minor sentence

A sentence fragment that’s gramatically incomplete but still makes sense in context eg No way!

Compound sentence

A sentence that joins 2 more independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction (I went to the shop, I and brought some bread

Superlative Adjective

Shows the highest degree of quality (the tallest, the most beautiful etc)

Intensifier

A word that emphasises the degree of an adjective or adverb (very, extremely, absolutely)

Sentence types

Declarative, Interogative, Imperative, Exclamatory

Pre- Modifier

An adjective or another modifier that comes before a noun to modify it eg old horse, small dog etc.

Colloquial Language

the casual, informal speech used in everyday conversation among ordinary people, distinct from formal or academic language. It is characterized by conversational phrases, contractions (e.g., "gonna"), regional expressions, and slang, which help create a sense of community or realism

Archaic Language

words, grammatical structures, or phrases that were common in earlier time periods but are rarely used in contemporary speech or writing

What is CMC: (Computer-Mediated Communication?)

Communication that takes place through digital platforms (e.g. social media, messaging apps, forums).

What are features of CMC?

• Abbreviations (lol, idk)

• Emojis/emoticons

• Non-standard spelling

What is audience design?

Adjusting language depending on who you’re communicating with online.

What is identity construction online?

Users actively shape their identity through language, usernames, bios, and posts.

What is non-standard English online?

Deliberate use of informal or unconventional spelling/grammar (e.g. “u”, “gonna”).

What is algorithmic influence?

Platforms shape what language/content is seen, affecting communication patterns.

What is performativity?

The idea that identity is created through what we do and say repeatedly.

What is semantic reclamation?

Reclaiming negative terms (e.g. “queer”, “bitch” or “bossy”) and giving them positive meaning.

What is language and power in sexuality?

Dominant groups influence how sexuality is discussed and understood.

What is policing of language?

Critiquing or correcting language use to enforce inclusivity or norms.

What is identity construction in sexuality?

Individuals use language to express and shape their sexual identity.

What is language change in sexuality discourse?

The development of new terms (e.g. “non-binary”, “pansexual”) reflecting social change.