Linguistic Anthro: SP23- Frese, exam 1

Culture

a set of rules or standards shared by members of a society, which, when acted upon by the members, produce behavior that falls within a range of variation the members consider proper and acceptable; the values and beliefs that people use to interpret experience and generate behavior, and which are reflected in their behavior

Society

a group of people who occupy a specific locality and who share a common cultural tradition and language       

Consultant

the speaker from whom the researcher collects linguistic or cultural information; recognizes the intellectual contribution made to studies by those native speakers who work with anthropologists

Ethnocentrism

the belief that one’s own culture is superior in every way to all others; looking at another set of cultural beliefs through your cultural lenses.

__cultural relativism__

the thesis that because cultures are unique, they can be evaluated only according to their own standards and values;  looking at another set of cultural beliefs through the eyes of members of that society.           

 __Participant observation__

the immersion of anthropological field-workers for an extended period of time in the day-to-day activities of the people whom they study

__holistic approach__ 

 concern with a system as a whole rather than with only some of its parts; defining feature of anthropology; looking at different aspects of a system as an interconnected whole with the purpose of understanding the subject matter in its full complexity as opposed to looking at different units separately.

__ebonics__

a name sometimes given to “African American English,” combining the words *ebony* and *phonics*, meaning “Black English”

__reduplication__

functional repetition of a part of a word

According to the authors, what do people stereotypically think about anthropologists? 

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· “in pith helmets out in a jungle someplace uncovering bizarre tribal customs.”

·  Honestly kind of a stupid stereotype, and the use of the word bizarre here highlights a bit about what people commonly of cultures unlike their own.

Are unwritten languages “primitive”?  How is a view like this ethnocentric?

The idea of “primitive” implies that one is less biologically evolved than the other, which is an ethnocentric way of thinking about thinks, as it implies that you believe your own language/culture is better than another.

Hymes argues that “no known languages are primitive” but some are more successful. Why?

·       Because some languages are more adapted to the needs of industrial civilization

·        world languages  are associated with societies that languages are the basis of literature, education, science, and commerce.

How many indigenous languages or regional dialects are presently found in Mexico? 

·       250

How is social status reflected in the use of Spanish in Mexico?

·       Where there are many languages spoken, the ability to read and write the language that most are able to read and write is associated with knowledge, which leads to political or economic power

How are linguistic prejudice and racial prejudice “close relatives” according to the authors

·       Because “Languages, dialects, choice of words, and accents become the means by which people are classified and then treated accordingly.”

What was the stimulation for the earliest phases of what became linguistic anthropology? What was Thomas Jefferson’s perspective on early language studies?

·       The exposure of European Immigrants to native American cultures

·       Jefferson believed in the use of comparative study of languages, and also using linguistic methods to address questions of prehistory

The authors argue that “One of the main intellectual and scientific tasks of the day \[mid nineteenth century\] was to try to explain this diversity of race, language, and culture, past and present” (p. 8).  How did they do it that led to issues of social evolution?

·       Early anthropologists focused on nonliterate tribal peoples, labeling them as “primitive” or “savage”, which influenced how people viewed the development of social structures and culture.

What are the four fields of anthropology? and what do these fields encompass?

·       They encompass humanity and everything that humanity does

·       Archaeology: remains of human and it’s predecessors, along with what they have left behind.

·       Linguistic Anthropology: the study of language within the framework of anthropology

·       Physical Anthropology: the development of humans

·       Cultural Anthropology: concerned with culture within the framework of anthropology

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 

 -also known as linguistic relativity, this theory is focused on the relationship between language and the mind, and specifically how a language influences the way speakers of a particular language see the world. As there are differences between  languages, presumably these differences result in different worldviews.

Speech Community

individuals who share the same language variety, and who have shared ways of interpreting and using that language

What does Salzman argue is the difference between linguistics and linguistic anthropology?

·       Linguistics is specifically the study of languages (their structure and rules) and excludes the study of a particular languages in order to speak them and understand their sociocultural contexts

·       Linguistic anthropology looks at the biological and cultural context

Discuss the four statements provided to distinguish between “linguistics” and “linguistic anthropology” on page 18.

·       There is no mention of the speakers and the circumstances surrounding the use of the statements in the linguistic statements. They study language as an independent unit, focusing on structure and development of languages, while in the anthropology statements, the speaker, context and language are all taken into consideration, along with the usage and meaning of aspects of language in a cultural context

Why is “consultant” preferable to “informant” to refer to a native speaker who assists the anthropologist in research?  

·       Social context. Informer has a negative connotation, and consultant implies intellectual credit by the native speakers whom are being referenced

Briefly discuss “cultural shock” and its impact upon fieldwork.

·       The response to exposure to unfamiliar cultural surroundings causing an initial disorientation and anxiety. Culture shock tends to make field work more difficult because of this, with many factors influencing the degree to which it effects a fieldworker (community dynamics, absence of privacy, different foods, poor hygiene, lack of physical comfort, excessive heat/humidity/cold, unfamiliar animals,  or lack of health care are common stressors.)

phoneme

        -the smallest meaningful unite of sound in a language

phonetics

        -the study of sound systems of a particular language

allophone

       -variations of a phoneme

What is the major difference between consonant and vowel sounds?   

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Vowel sounds, air escapes through the mouth or nose without being altered and are more fluid, while contestants are changed (has a point of articulation) by the tongue or lips

Discuss the concept of “accent”.

Accent is just stress and pitch of speech, which result in different pronunciations of phonemes in a common language

Do problem 1 on page 61.

I think that they are allophones, as they are often similar in words, and are even found in the SAME word serving seemingly similar purposes. One is also voiceless and the other is voiced which I think makes them different, but still similar and serving the same purpose, where one can’t be used, the other is. Their location in the words are also similar

discourse

-the main analytical unit of communicative behavior that varies in duration, such as a greeting or a conversation.  Discourse can be spoken and written

morpheme

smallest unit of meaning in a language; the smallest contrastive units of grammar

morphophonemics

      -study of the phonemic differences among allomorphs of the same morpheme. 

generative grammar

    -an analytical approach that uses formal rules to generate grammatical sentences in a language. 

transformational grammar

  -rules that create interrogative sentences, commands or passives.  Take a simple or basic sentence and using one of these rules, transform it to another kind of sentence.

syntax

-the manner in which words of a language are strung together into sentences; concerns the arrangement of words within a sentence to produce a grammatically correct sentence

lexicon 

  the vocabular or word lists of a language (dictionary)

allomorph

variations of a morpheme.  As the morpheme is used in different contexts, the pronunciation might also change.  For example, the plural -s in English changed depending on which word it is attached to. (no explain)  Other examples include internal changes like *man* to *men*.

Discuss why Navajos would never say “the water was drunk by the girl”.

Because of the natural ranking that Navajo culture has assigned to things around them. This ranking is reflected in Dine via the ordering of their verbs. This has to do with the direction of control (agency of the subjects in the sentence). The girl has control over the water, therefore the girl drank the water, the water was not drank by the girl.

            “The sentence attributes more intelligence to the water than it does to the girl, and anyone ought to know that human beings are smarter than water”

Briefly discuss Sherzer’s understanding of “discourse”.

Sherzer says that discourse is the essentially the most comprehensive level of linguistics. He claims that this is where form, content, and use of language is at its best, and is the center for language-culture relationships.

            What i’m getting here is that discourse is the easiest way to express linguistics in its “highest form” (that’s a bad way to put it).

What is a “free” morpheme? A “bound” morpheme?

Free morphemes can stand alone (that is to not be attached to other morphemes and be independent words ex: grace, shock, act)

Bound morphemes are unable to stand alone and ONLY occur in conjunction with other morphemes (ex: -ing, -ly, dis-)

What are the three most common types of affixes? 

Prefix- Attached before the stem

Suffix- Attached after the stem

Infix- attached within another morpheme

What are /s/, /z/, and /əz/?

The most common allomorphs for the plural morpheme in the English language

ez comes after the ch sound, f, v, l, z, s

s comes after voiceless stops, k and t

z comes after voiced stops, laterals, nasals, and vowels

nonverbal communication:

Transmission of signals accomplished by means other than spoken words

\-       Not everyone agrees on what is encompassed here, but could include bodily gestures, facial expressions, spacing, touch/smell, whistle, drum language, and smoke signals          

Semiotics:

The study of properties of signs and symbols AND their functions in communication

Increased attention given to all modes of communication caused steady growth in the field

Paralanguage:

Characteristics of vocal communications considered marginal or optional and therefore excludable from linguistic analysis

Kinesics:

the study of the way in which certain body movements and gestures serve as a form of nonverbal communication.

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Aka: the study of body language  

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Body language is culturally relevant

Kineme:     

The smallest meaningful unit in the study of kinesics (analogous to the phoneme)

Proxemics:          

the study of the cultural patterning of the spatial separation that individuals maintain in face-to-face encounters

Sign Language:

the set of signs used while communicating manually

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culturally relevant

cheremes:           

any of a small set of elements that combine into meaningful signs (analogous with phonemes)

ASL:

American Sign Language, the form of sign language used across a majority of the United States

Uses more than 5000 signs with new ones added as needed

Protowriting:     

early writing systems, commonly that emerged in Eurasia (could include doodles, scratches, knots, scribbles, or marks of various kinds that could be used as mnemonic devices

Alphabet:

English signing system that is made up of signs that represent 26 letters of the English alphabet and &

Cuneiform:

wedge-shaped characters used in ancient writing systems from Mesopotamia, Persia, and Ugarit. Commonly seen impressed on clay tablets.

Hieroglyphics:

pictographic writing system that developed in

Provide three examples of nonverbal communication.

1. Clothing
2. Body modifications
3. Spatial usage
4. middle finger

What are the three most common paralinguistic features and provide an example of each. 

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1. Voice Qualifiers: Tone and pacing of speech (includes intensity, pitch, tempo, and articulation)
2. Voice Characterizer: qualities that accompany speech, and that are through which one talks (laughing, crying, giggling, sobbing, yelling, groaning, whining)
3. Vocal Segregates: extra linguistic sounds, that is to be not part of the phonemic system (uh-huh, uh-uh, tsk-tsk)

What are four basic components that students of kinesics take note of?

1. Facial Expression: Signal emotions
2. Eye Contact: varies not only from culture to culture, but also from person to person.
3. Body Posture: conveys an individuals attitude and emotion
4. Hand Gestures: Invoke touching behavior, which is culture-specific (can be used to emphasize, greet, celebrate)

Provide three examples of sign language beside those for the deaf.

1. Hula
2. Occupational - Scuba/saw workers
3. Hindu dance

English features 26 letters in the alphabet.  How many characters does the Chinese dictionary have? 

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50,000

When and by whom was the first alphabetic system used? 

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1700 BCE in ancient Syria

For what three languages were the early alphabets designed?

1. Arabic
2. Hebrew
3. Phoenician

Protolanguages:

The communication system that preceded full-fledge language   

Prelanguage:

The same as protolanguage

Language death:

occurs when the last of a language speaker’s die, and the language is unable to continue being spoken     

Briefly consider nonhuman primates and communication in terms of Kanzi, Nina, Loulis, Washoe and Koko.   

1. The primates mentioned above were involved in studies testing the ability of a non-human primate to learn, remember, and utilize various forms of communication. They also have different cultures, and are able to hear and process the things we are saying and communicate back.

Discuss the role that natural selection may have played in the role of language evolution.

1. Natural selection served to be simply a mode of which to develop/acquire language. The book says that evolutionary forces made the need for communication greater, therefore making it more sophisticated over time.

Which species of homo does the book suggest definitely has the first prelanguage?  Why?  

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  Homo erectus

  They drove herds together in collaboration with each other

What evidence is there for the Neanderthals having language?   

Cooperative social/hunting efforts

the flower burial (evidence of ritualism)

According to the Multi-Tree project, how many languages have become extinct?

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1.  1400 (that we know about)   

Is Old English extinct? 

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1. Technically dead, since most native English speakers do not utilize old English, however because it is survived by more recent works that use it (Shakespeare) and middle English, its not extinct, since language *change* does not equal language *death*.

How many languages are there in the world today? 

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1. 7000

What are three reasons for why a language might die? 

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1. Very small society that couldn’t survive a epidemic disease
2. Very small society that died in warfare or natural disasters
3. Economic and Cultural influence of larger nation states that surround small societies

          i. Small society must change, can no longer support traditional way of life and becomes dependent on the larger nation state.

1. What are five reasons that Crystal argues for why we should care if a language dies?

1. We need diversity to preserve cultural wealth
2. Language constitutes the primary symbol of ethnic identity
3. Languages, written or unwritten are repositories of history
4. Languages contribute to the sum of human knowledge
5. Languages are fascinating in themselves

bilingual:

a person who can speak two languages

critical age hypothesis:

The idea that before maturation (that is, before puberty), your brain can learn language easier

code-switching:

the term for the blending that occurs in regions where there are several languages or dialects present within a community. The speakers of these languages/dialects possess varying degrees of facility and these codes become blended

diglossia:

the use of two distinct varieties of a language for two different sets of functions

What is the first step in learning languages?

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1. To learn the phonological system (reproduce the speech sounds)

What are the first sounds that babies all over the world make?

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1. /b/, /p/, /m/
2. Bilabial, alveolar, nasal stops+fricatives
3. Don’t need teeth for them

What is Chomsky’s major view on children’s acquisition of language?  

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1. That children acquire language through construction, provided with only small amounts of data from said language the baby begins to learn the underlying rules to the language from the small data provided. And that they do this without instruction.

How does interaction between caregiver and baby in Anglo-American white middle-class families and with the Kaluli differ?

* Anglo-Americans are consistently talking to their babies simply to talk to them, before they are even capable of producing speech, in Anglo-American culture babies almost always face toward their caregiver. In Anglo-Americans there is typically only a one on one interaction.
* the Kaluli speak around the children but not at them until they are ready to, and they also face their babies outward in the Kaluli culture
* entirely by pass ‘baby talk’that is pretty characteristic in Anglo-Americans. There is also an element of more multiparty interactions within the Kaluli

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“infants and caregivers do not interact with one another according to one particular ‘biologically designed choreography’ . . . \[but\] there are many choreographies within and across societies . . . that contribute to their design, frequency and significance”

Briefly discuss the three developmental phases of the childhood bilingual acquisition process shared by the authors.

1 . The child builds up a set of words from BOTH languages, keeping them separate, not as translations

2\. Sentences begin to appear, using either just one or both languages

3\. Vocabulary expands with one grammatical pattern

Discuss the “low” and “high” varieties of diglossia. – historical linguistics look at this

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1. The common language is the low variety while the high variety isn’t taught to the common person and is only used in formal circumstances.