Psych Mid-Term Chapters 1-7

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Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Critical Thinking

the ability to analyze information objectively, question assumptions, and evaluate evidence before forming conclusions.

Why critical thinking helps with decisions

Reduces bias and faulty reasoning, encourages evidence-based thinking, and helps evaluate claims and arguments.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founded the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany and is considered the father of modern psychology.

Biological (Neuroscience) Approach

Focuses on how the brain, nervous system, genetics, and hormones influence behavior and mental processes.

Behavioral Approach

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they are learned through conditioning and environmental stimuli.

Psychodynamic Approach

Focuses on unconscious thoughts, early childhood experiences, and inner conflicts; developed from the work of Sigmund Freud.

Humanistic Approach

Focuses on personal growth, free will, and human potential, associated with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem solving.

Sociocultural Approach

Studies how culture, social groups, and environment influence behavior and thinking.

Biopsychosocial Model

Explains behavior using three interacting factors: biological factors, psychological factors, and social influences.

Culture

refers to the shared beliefs, customs, values, language, behaviors, and traditions of a group of people.

Theory

A broad explanation of behavior supported by large amounts of evidence.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Descriptive Research

Research that observes and describes behavior without manipulating variables.

Case Study

An in-depth study of one person or small group.

Correlational Research

Studies the relationship between two variables to see if they are related.

Correlation Coefficient

A number from -1 to +1 showing the direction and strength of a relationship between two variables.

Experiment

A method that manipulates variables to test cause-and-effect relationships.

Random Assignment

Participants are randomly placed into groups to prevent bias and ensure groups are similar.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome that is measured in an experiment.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment, allowing a comparison of results.

Brain Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change and reorganize by forming new neural connections.

Central Nervous System

Consists of two structures: the brain and the spinal cord.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates the fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Returns the body to a calm resting state.

Stress

The body’s physical and psychological response to challenges or threats.

Fight-or-Flight Response

A physiological reaction to perceived danger.

Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.

Parts of a Neuron

Dendrites receive messages, cell body processes information, axon sends signals, myelin sheath speeds up signals.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

Limbic System

A group of brain structures responsible for emotion, motivation, and memory.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for thinking, reasoning, language, perception, and voluntary movement.

Four Lobes of the Brain

Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital—each responsible for different functions.

Sensation

The process of detecting physical stimuli through sensory organs.

Perception

The brain’s interpretation of sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that starts with sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Perception influenced by expectations, prior knowledge, and experience.

Selective Attention

The ability to focus on one stimulus while ignoring others.

Sensory Adaptation

Reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus.

Perceptual Constancy

The tendency to perceive objects as stable even when sensory input changes.

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Controlled Processes

Require conscious attention and effort.

Automatic Processes

Occur without conscious effort.

Circadian Rhythms

A 24-hour biological clock regulating sleep, body temperature, and hormone release.

Non-REM Sleep Stages

Stages of sleep including light sleep (Stage 1), deeper sleep (Stage 2), and deep sleep (Stage 3).

REM Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement sleep characterized by dreaming.

Sleep Disorders

Conditions that disrupt normal sleep patterns, such as insomnia and sleep apnea.

Tolerance

When the body requires larger doses of a drug to produce the same effect.

Addiction

A chronic disorder involving compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences.

Substance Use Disorder

Signs include craving, inability to stop, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms.

Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that alter brain function and consciousness.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge caused by experience.

Behaviorism

The theory that behavior is learned through interactions with the environment.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between two stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through rewards and punishments.

Memory

The process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Semantic (facts), Episodic (experiences), Procedural (skills).

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information.

Serial Position Effect

We remember first and last items in a list best.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and problem solving.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

Validity

Whether a test measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability

Whether a test produces consistent results over time.