Geography

what is global warming

the sharp rise in the average temperature across the world

what is climate change

long term changes in the earth’s average temperature and rainfall

what is the quaternary period

the time period that we live in now

when did the quaternary period start

2.6 million years ago

what is the greenhouse effect

the sun’s heat being trapped in the atmosphere by naturally occuring gases and this keeps the planet warm

what is enhanced greenhouse effect

this is when human activities increase the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causing the planet to warm more rapidly

evidence of climate change:

dendrochronology, historical artwork, ice cores, ocean acidification, rise in global sea levels and melting ice sheets.

what are the natural causes of climate change

orbital changes, sunspot activity and volcanic activity

what are the three different cycles known as

milankovitch cycles

what is the eccentricity cycle

the change in the shape of the earth’s orbit from almost circular to more elliptical and back again every 100,000 years

what is the axial tilt/ obliquity

when the tilt of the earth’s axis moves back and forth every

what is precession

when the earth’s axis wobbles like a spinning top

what is a sunspot

a dark patch on the sun’s surface caused by intense magnetic energy which increases solar radiation and causes solar flares that peak every 10 years

how does volcanic activity contribute to climate change

when volcanoes erupt, they release particles like dust, ash and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere and these volcanic materials reflect incoming radiation from the sun, cooling the earth

what are the human causes of climate change

agriculture, deforestation and fossil fuels

what percentage of global greenhouse gases does agriculture produce

30%

how does agriculture contribute to climate change

cattle produce a large amount of methane during digestion, microbes release carbon dioxide when decomposing organic matter and rice paddies release a lot of carbon dioxide during anaerobic respiration

what is deforestation

the clearing of forests on a huge scale.

how does deforestation contribute to climate change

trees act as carbon sinks and when they are cut down or burned they release the carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere and when they photosynthesize, they take in carbon dioxide so by cutting them down the carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere

what are fossil fuels

decomposed dead organisms that can be burned to produce energy

how do fossil fuels contribute to climate change

when they are burned, they release carbon dioxide and they account for over 50% of global greenhouse emissions.

what is climate mitigation

any action taken to eliminate or reduce long term risks or hazards of climate change

examples of alternate energy sources

bioenergy, nuclear power, hydroelectricity, solar, wind, tidal

what is carbon capture and storage

technology that captures carbon dioxide from industrial processes and compresses it. It is transported by pipelines as a liquid to a suitable geological reservoir such as an empty oil fields

what is afforestation

planting trees to take in the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Also they release moisture into the atmosphere through transpiration which produces more clouds and reduces incoming solar radiation

what are international agreements

where countries gather together to tackle climate change because it is a global issue and so it requires a global solution

name 3 different times countries have gathered to talk about climate change

earth summit in Rio(1992), paris accords(2016), COP26 in Glasgow(2021)

how many countries signed the paris agreement

196 countries

what is climate adaptation

adjusting to climate change

give climate adaptation methods in Low Income Countries

introducing drought-resistant strains of crops, new irrigation systems,shade trees and new cropping patterns

what is urbanization

the increase in proportion of a population living in towns and cities

why do cities grow

rural to urban migration and natural increase

what is natural increase

when the birth rate is higher than the death rate leading to population growth

what is rural to urban migration

movement of people from rural areas to urban areas due to various pull factors

pull factors:

better infrastructure, better access to education, better access to healthcare, family connections, employment opportunities, improved living conditions

push factors:

lack of employment opportunities, little to no access to education, war, famine, impacts of natural disasters, mechanization of agriculture, lack of access to healthcare and persecution

what are favelas

illegal settlements where people have built homes on land that they don’t own because they are poor

what is the biggest favela in Rio

Rocinha

what is a low income country

a country with a gross national income of less than $1,045

what is a high income country

a country with a gross national income more than $12,056

what is quality of life

a person’s happiness, satisfaction and well-being

where is rio de janeiro

southeastern brazil on the atlantic coast of brazil. It is bordered by sao paulo and is 23 degrees south and 43 degrees west.

what is a megacity

a city with a population of over 10 million

what are social opportunities and challenges in Rio

healthcare, water supply, energy supply and education

between what ages is education compulsory in Rio

6-14

what percentage of children in Rio continue school after 14

half. Others can’t afford to continue and some are forced into drug trafficking

what are the authorities doing to improve the access to education

giving school grants to poor families, opening a university in Rocinha and encouraging people to volunteer at school

in a good district in Rio what was the infant mortality rate

6 out of 100

in a good district in Rio what is the life expectancy

80 years old

in a bad district in Rio what is the infant mortality rate

21 out of 100

in a bad district in Rio what is the life expectancy

45 years old

what are the authorities doing to improve the healthcare inequality

in Santa Marla they brought medical staff to the favela and they identified and treated 20 different diseases

what percentage of people in Rio don’t have access to running water

12%

what percentage of water is lost through leaky pipes, fraud and illegal access

37%

what are the authorities doing to solve the water supply issue

seven new water treatment plants have been built between 1998 and 2014 and over 300km of pipes were laid.

what does all of Rio suffer from frequently in terms of energy supply

frequent blackouts

how do poorer people in Rio get their electricity

they tap into the mains supply which is illegal and unsafe

what are the authorities doing to improve the energy supply issue

they have installed 60km of power lines, built a nuclear generator and developed a new hydroelectric complex which increases Rio’s electricity supply by 30%

what is the informal sector

when the money earned isn’t taxed but also it means you don’t get government provided services.

what are Rio’s three environmental challenges

Air pollution, water pollution and waste pollution

how many deaths does air pollution cause in Rio

5000 deaths per year

why is there so much air pollution in Rio

because of heavy traffic congestion on roads.

how much has the number of cars in Rio grown by

over 40%

what are the authorities doing to reduce traffic congestion

they are expanding the metro system so it can be cheaper and more accessible. Aso they are introducing toll roads to discourage people from driving

why is it bad that Guanabara Bay is highly polluted

because it is a major threat to wildlife and there is a risk that it will spread to Ipanema and Copacabana beaches which will damage tourism

how much sewage gets dumped into Guanabara Bay every day

20 tonnes

what are the authorities doing to improve the water pollution

12 new sewage plants have been built and ships get fined for dumping they’re oil into the bay

what is the challenge with waste pollution

Many favelas are built on the steep slopes making it difficult for waste collection lorries to get there. Most waste is dumped and pollutes the water

What are the authorities doing to improve the waste pollution

A new power plant has been set up near the university of rio which uses methane from rotting rubbish

how much waste does the power plant at the university of rio consume

30 tonnes

what is the favela-bairro project

a project aimed at transforming favelas into functional neighbourhoods by improving living conditions

how are waves formed

waves are formed by the wind bowing over the sea. The water molecules move in a circular motion in the sea but as the water gets shallower the molecules’ motions become more oval and the movement becomes slower. Eventually the movement becomes so slow that the crest crashes over the top

what are the factors that affect the size of a wave

strength of the wind, duration of wind and the fetch

what is fetch

the distance that the wind blows the wave

what are constructive waves

waves that have low amplitude and long wavelength meaning they have a gentle gradient. They deposit more than they erode because they don’t have a lot of energy. They have a frequency of less than 10 waves per minute. Constructive waves have a strong swash and a weak backwash

what are destructive waves

waves that have high amplitude and short wavelength meaning that they have a steep gradient. They have lots of energy meaning they erode more than they deposit. They have a strong backwash and a weak swash and they have a frequency of more than 10 waves per minute

what is weathering

the decay of rocks due to factors such as rainfall and temperature

what is scree

fragments of rock at the foot of a cliff

explain freeze thaw weathering

freeze thaw weathering is when water collects in cracks in rocks. The water freezes and because ice expands it puts pressure on the rock. Then the water thaws and the cycle repeats itself and results in fragments of rock falling off

what is mass movement

the down-slope movement of material under the influence of gravity

what is slumping

when saturated rocks slide down a concave slope

what is sliding

when large rocks slide down the face of a straight slope

what is a rockfall

when fragments of rocks fall suddenly off the top of the cliff as scree

what is abrasion

when water throws rocks at the face of a cliff and acts like sandpaper- grinding away the cliff face

what is hydraulic action

when water and air is forced into cracks of rocks and becomes compressed causing a very small explosive force that causes fragments of rock to fall off

what is attrition

when rocks in the water bang against each other causing them to become smaller and smoother

what is solution

when the slightly acidic sea slowly dissolves certain minerals like chalk, limestone or marble.

what is traction

when large material gets rolled along the seabed

what is saltation

when sediment like pebbles are too heavy to be picked up by water but light enough to float so they hop along the seabed in a leapfrog motion

what is suspension

when light sediment like sand or silt floats in the water and moves with the current

what is solution

when soluble sediment dissolves into the water and moves with the current

what is longshore drift

the prevaling wind carries the waves to the beach at an angle. The swash meets the beach at an angle but the back wash goes back down the beach at a right angle. This carries sediment down the beach in a zig zag motion

what is a spit

a narrow extension of a beach that juts out into the sea.Salt marshes form behind them

how are spits formed

longshore drift transports sediment along the coast. When there is no more land the wave looses energy and sediment is deposited and it accumulates to form a spit. The spit ends because theres usually an estuary that has a strong flow not allowing anymore sediment to be deposited

what is a seawall

a concrete or rock barrier at the back of a beach that are recurved. They force the waves back into the sea

what are the advantages of sea walls

they are efficient at stopping the sea and they have walkways for people to walk along

what are the disadvantages of sea walls

sea walls are obtrusive and look unnatural and they sre very expensive and require high maintenance

what are groynes

timbre or rock structures that stick out to sea and stop longhore drift causing sediment to be deposited and a beach to be formed or enlarged. Beaches are natural buffers against wave energy because they dissipate wave energy

what are the advantages of groynes

they increase tourism and their less expensive

what are the disadvantages of groynes

they can look unnatural and they starve beaches further up the coastline