Theoretical Crim Exam 2

What is the most important proposition of Sutherland’s differential association theory?

Proposition #6; a person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of the law over defintions unfavorable to violation of the law

How many propositions did Sutherland have in his differential association theory

Nine

According to Sutherland, what are factors that affect both criminal and anticriminal associations?

priority of learning (how early it was learned), frequency (how often one interacts with groups encouraging behavior), duration (length of exposure to behavior), and intensity (status of those manifesting the observed behavior)

In Sutherland’s differential association theory, what are the four modalites of association?

duration, priority, frequency, and intensity

Burgess and Akers modified Sutherland’s theory in 1966, by adding how behavior is learned using principles of _________

operant conditioning

_________ reinforcement occurs when the termination or removal of an aversive stimulus is likely to increae the target behavior; it involves taking away something undesirable; removing punishment

negative

Who developed differential reinforcement theory?

Akers and Burgess

From Aker’s social learning theory, this concept refers to a process whereby one is exposed to normative definitions favorable or unfavorable to illegal or law-abiding behavior. There are two dimensions, interactional and normative.

differential associations

From Aker’s social learning theory _________ are religious, moral, and other conventional values and norms favorable to conforming behavior and unfavorable to committing any deviant or criminal behavior.

general definitions

Based on Akers’ concept of differential reinforcement, there are three modalities of reinforcement. What are they?

amount, frequency, and probability

Based on Akers’ differential reinforcement theory, what is amount as a modality of reinforcement?

the greater the value or amount of reinforcement for the behavior

Based on Akers’ differential reinforcement theory, what is frequency as a modality of reinforcement?

the more frequently it is reinforced

Based on Akers’ differential reinforcement theory, what is probability as a modality of reinforcement?

the higher the probability it will be reinforced, the greater chance it will occur and be repeated

From Sykes and Matza’s (1957) work, what concept refers to words and phrases that excuse or justify lawbreaking? They occur before the act.

neutralizations

View that a person has not been hurt by the behavior/act, just mischief, borrowing, anyone or anything was not harmed by their action; “No one got hurt,” or “They’ll never miss it.”

denial of injury

The neutralization appeals to the audience to compare the offender’s crime to more serious ones and can go so far as claiming to be moral; “There are others worse than me.”

claim of relative acceptability

What are two basic elements of Sutherland’s differential association theory?

nature of the knowledge content is key and process by which learning takes place is important

What are the four key concepts in Akers’ social learning theory?

differential association, differential reinforcement, imitation, and definition

What is the empirical support for social learning theories?

moderate to strong

What is the third proposition of Reiss’ theory where he states how delinquency would result from any or all of the propositions?

an absence of, or conflict in, social rules provided by important social groups (family, close friends, school)

What are the three propositions of Reiss’ theory of how delinquency would result?

• lack of proper internal controls developed during childhood

• a breakdown of those internal controls

• an absence of, or conflict in, scoial rules provided by important social groups (family, close friends, school)

Nye published a study that focused on the family as the single most important source of social control for adolescents, what are the three categories he developed for social control?

• direct controls from the threat of punishment from parents

• indirect controls which protect youths from deliquency through their wish to avoid hurting intimates, such as parents

• internal controls which relies on an internalized sense of guilt

Reckless developed containment theory, which consisted of four main concepts. What concept of his is described as a “self-component,” or self-control, good self concept, high resistance to diversions, high sense of responsibility, goal orientation, ability to find substitute satisfactions, tension reducing rationalizations, etc.?

inner containment

In Reckless’ containment theory, what is outer containment?

external controls that prevent offending, like school and family

In Reckless’ containment theory, what is inner containment?

intenral controls that prevent offending, like guilt, self-concept, negative reaction from society (labeling), etc.

According to Hirschi (19690, there are four social bonds. Which social bond is this? Caring about others, including their respect, opinions, and expectaions, based on mutual trust.

Attachment

According to Hirschi (1969), there are four social bonds. Which social bond is this? The rational investment one has in conventional society and the risk one takes when engaging in delinquent behavior; people invest time and energy in different activities (aka stake in conformity)

commitment

Based on the empirical research of Hirschi’s social control theory, which bond is known to be the most important?

Attachment

What is is the component of Hirschi’s social bonds that relates to time and energy spent on participation in conventional activities, the more time spent, the less time there is to deviate?

involvement

What is the component of Hirschi’s social bonds that relates to moral validity of conventional norms and a child’s respect for authority of those limiting behaviors; ongoing conviction that conventional behavior is important and necessary while recognizing that others have different beliefs

belief

What are the four components of social bonds in Hischi’s social control theory?

• attachment

• commitment

• involvement

• belief

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) general theory of crime, a person who has characteristics such as impulsivity, insensitivity, self-centeredness is known to possess ______________.

low self-control

How does low self-control develop?

incomplete socialization by way of ineffective child-rearing

What are the three components of effective child-rearing?

• monitor the behavior

• recognize deviant behavior when it occurs

• punish and correct such behavior

As a whole, rather than stressing causative factors in criminal behavior, the social control paradigm focuses on _________.

Why do people obey the rules or why don’t people commit crimes?

What is normative regulation?

the process of laying down the law and making clear what children can and cannot do

What is self-control?

tendency to consider the broader or longer-term consequences of one’s actions

What is the term that refers to seeing ourselves through the mirror of others?

looking glass self

The term that refers to the fact that once a person is labeled, they are subject to the negative effects of the label itself, which in turn, produces an individual’s self-image, such as “criminal”, “druggie”, “felon”, etc.

master status

According to Schur, we might re-evaluate a person’s past behavior and redefine the pesron so it is consistent with the current label, which is refered to as ________.

retrospective interpretation

What is Matza’s drift theory?

explains that juveniles aren’t fully committed to delinquent values or law-abiding values and are temporarily freed from mainstream values to commit crime

What are verbalizations in neutralization theory?

vocabularies of motive; the most important element in the process of getting introuble is the conversations they have with themselves; “I’m not stealing, I’m just borrowing.”

What are rationalizations in neutralization theory?

the process of altering the meaning of something that is seen as offensive and transofrming it to something that seems acceptable; avoiding blame; cognitive dissonance

What are the first five techniques of neutralizations?

• denial of responsibility

• denial of injury

• denial of the victim

• condemnation of the condemners

• appeal to higher authorities

What are the five techniques of neutralizations that came out later after the original five?

• claim of normality

• metaphor of the ledger

• denial of negative intent

• claim of relative acceptability

• claim of entitlement

As stated by Lemert, there are deviations that are only seen by the individual. This is occsaional or situational behavior that is peripheral to a person’s identity and is referred to as _____________.

primary deviations

According to Becker, social grousp create deviance by:

• making rules whose infractions constitutes deviance; the audience finds a behavior they consider offensive

• applying those rules to particular people

• labeling them outsiders; typically young, lower-class urban minroity males do not have the means or resources to resist

Tannenbaum (1938) wrote about the process of making the criminal. He described it as “a process of tagging, defining, identifying, segregating, describing, emphasizing, making conscious and self-conscious; it becomes a way of stimulating, suggesting, emphasizing, and evoking the very traits that are complained of.” He also stated, “The emphasis is on the youth’s conduct that is inappropriate; it brings out the bad behavior that it would suppress.” What is the name of this theory?

dramatization of evil

____________ is shaming which is followed by efforts to reintegrate the offender back into the community of the law-abiding through a gesture of forgiveness or ceremony to decertify the offender as deviant.

reintegrative shaming

Which Braithwaite (1989) concept is known as the extent to which individuals engage in networks wherein they are dependt on conventional others to achieve valued ends and others are dependent on them; life social bonding and attachment commitment?

interdependency

Which Braithewaite (1989) concept describes how in some societies, people are enmeshed and loyal to the collective rather than themselves, they feel a sense of mutual help and trust?

communitarianism

How do we best describe the empirical support for labeling effects?

little to no support

What is the emprical support on Braithwaite’s theory of reintegrative shaming?

mixed support

What is attachment theory

children who have frequent breaks in their relationship with their mother or have other similar factors have trouble forming other relationships, as well as trouble with empathy and recognizing harm caused to others

What is labeling?

a process that occurs through social interaction over time and contains both social contextual and cognitive human agency perspectives

What is Lemert’s primary deviance?

minor rule-breaking (speeding, stealing office equipment, drinking and driving, etc.); little consequence to social identity

What is Lemert’s secondary deviance?

continued deviance that results after a person’s primary deviance is reacted to by authorities, particularly social control agense of the criminal justice system; identity transformation; labeling and stigmatization

According to Becker, what is a moral entrepreneur?

those with more power who shape the law; their idea of crime is what sticks

According to Becker, what are moral crusades?

when moral entrepreneurs create rules and laws for behavior they find threatening; explains differences in corporate crime versus other crime

According to Becker, what are the stages of the labeling process?

• first stage: an actor engaging in behavior that the audience finds offensive

• second stage: control agents select people whose behavior is offensive and label their behavior

• third stage: definition of meaning behind teh behavior is determined by who has the greater power to influence the labeling process and whether the accused has the power to resist

What are total institutions according to Goffman?

places where similarly classified people are forced to live, work, and play together around activities consistent with the goals of the institution; example: prisons

According to Goffman, who are the discreditable?

those whose negative deviance and/or stigmatized behavior or conditions are not publicly known; they become discredited if known; secret deviants

According to Goffman, who are the discredited?

those whose negative deviance and/or stigmatized behavior is known or unavoidable

According to Mead, what is symbolic interactionism?

face-to-face interactions involve an exchange of meanings and an act toward meaning that is interpreted; example: students sees other students facing the front of the classroom and staying quiet, so they react by also taking a set and sitting quietly because they assume the teacher is speaking

What is Schur’s key proposition of his theory of radical noninterventions?

punishing juveniles for petty crimes is unnecessary

What is shaming?

all socail processes of expressing disapproval with the intention of invoking remorse

According to Braithewaite, what is disintegrative shaming?

no attempt to reconcile the shamed offender with the community; stigmatized shame; raises crime rates and recidivism

Which paradigm would advocate for the following policy and program implications? Preventative socialization, supervision and surveillance (daycares and schools), early intervention programs, parent training programs (discipline training), counseling adn social skills training programs, school-based programs, etc.

social control theory

Which paradigm would advocate for the following policy and program implications? Radical non-intervention, decriminalization, diversion, decarceration, restitution or reparation, reintegrative shaming, etc.

Labeling theory

Which paradigm would advocate for the following policy and program implications? Keep young people away from small groups and train them before they become involved, treatment of those already involved would entail resocialization, peer-led interventions, resistance skills training, personal and social skills training, conventional role models, etc.

Social learning theory

Which paradigm would advocate for the following policy and program implications? Reducing the adversity in youths’ social environment, increasing social skills training, problem solving, and anger management, deemphasize monetary success, paid family leave and affordable day care, culturally emphasizing sharing verses consuming, limiting advertising to information claims or reducing the length of advertisements, etc.

Strain/Anomie theory

Which paradigm would advocate for the following policy and program implications? The Chicago Area Project, financial support to improve residences, addressing physical deterioration of neighborhoods, neighborhood watch, community policing, increase collective efficacy, Crime Prevention Through Urban and Environmental Design, etc.

Chicago School/Social Disorganization Theory

Who is credited with creating the theory of human or urban ecology?

Robert Park

Park believed that the city was like a ___________ that hd natural areas within the city much like that of plants

super-organism

Park claimed that the balance of nature may change just like the balance of a city may chagne as it grows. The balance changes in a process of invasion, dominance, and _____________.

succession or accommodation

Park and Burgess observed the city of Chicago and believed that the city would expland ouward into zones, each two miles wide. Name each of the five zones.

• Zone 1: central business district

• Zone 2: transitional zone

• Zone 3: worker’s homes

• Zone 4: residential or suburban areas

• Zone 5: commuter zone

Shaw and McKay used the analytical framework of Park and Burgess, they used official court records to determine that the highest rates of crime were found in which zone?

Zone 2: transitional zone

______________ refers to a breakdown of community; the decrease of the influence of existing social rules of behavior on individual members of the community.

social disorganization

Social disorganization is based on what three variables?

• poverty

• residential mobility

• racial and ethnic heterogeneity

When empirically testing social disorganization theory, correlations have been found. Also, it may be best to assess non-structural variables such as racial/ethnic heterogeneity, residential mobility, family disruption, female headed household, median education level, infant mortality rate, and families living below the poverty line, and other which reflect the concept of _________________.

collective efficacy

Using aggregate level data to explain individual behavior is called the ____________.

ecological fallacy

What is the conflict view of social ecology?

communities compete for resources

What is the consensus view of social ecology?

shared understanding of mainstream culture

According to Shaw and Mckay’s Chicaog research, when is social control higher?

when there is greater ethnic uniformity because of the unity, rather thanr than the diverse values and social norms; people have an investment in their homes, and therefore a greater stake in the community

What are three primary qualities that make neighborhoods safer?

• clear demarcation between public and private space

• diversity of street use

• fairly constant sidewalk use translates into “eyes on the street”

According to Robert Park, the balance of change is a process of what three things?

• ivasion

• dominance

• succession

What is collective efficacy theory?

the perceived ability of neighborhood residents to be socially coehsive and agents of informal social control; neighborhoods high in collective efficacy maintain public order more efficiently

An assumption of Anomie/Strain paradigme is that crime is a normal response to ___________.

abnormal conditions

_____________ is a state of normlessness or a lack of social regulation in modern society or a breakdown of norms or social control (individuals don’t know how to act). When this exsists in society crime and suicide are likely to increase.

anomie

Merton’s mode of adaptation when an individual accepts the culturally approved goals (such as financial success or social status) but rejects or is unable to access the legitimate means to achieve those goals. It is particularly more common among the lower class or socially disadvantaged groups in society.

innovator or innovation

There are 5 modes of adaptation, according to Merton. Which one involves rejecting both the goals and the means to achieve them?

Retreatist

Agnew wrote about three types of deviance-producing strain. What are they?

• failure to achieve positively valued goals

• the anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli

• the actual or anticipated presentation of negatively valued stimuli

From Agnew’s general strain theory, strain from these three sources will manifest into ___________.

negative affect

Agnew later added different types of strains to his original three. What are the events or conditions that are disliked by people who are experiencing them?

subjective strain

From Agnew, strains experienced by others around the individuals like close family members and friends; strain that is witnessed

vicarious strain

From Messner and Rosenfeld, a commitment to the goal of material success, to be pursued by everyone in society, under conditions of open individual competition, refers to what?

The American Dream

According to Messner and Rosenfeld, there are four value commitments, what are they?

• achievement orientation

• individualism

• universalism

• monetary rewards/fetishism of money

Based on the work of Messner and Rosenfeld, what is the imbalance created by the domination of the economy over other institutions such as polity, family, and education, which leads to ineffective institutions, weakened control, and inadequacy to socialize or sanction individuals, thus producing higher rates of crime?

institutional anomie

What are Merton’s five modes of adaptation?

• conformity

• innovation

• ritualism

• retreatism

• rebellion

What is Merton’s adaptation known as conformity?

believes in the American dream and also has access to resources to succeed