A-Level Politics Examples

Specifically for Edexcel under the units Democracy and Participation, Voting Behaviour and the Media, US Constitution & Federalism and Congress.

What were the results of the 2016 British Referendum?

Britain membership in EU (2016), (51.9% Leave, 72% Turnout)

What is the 2015 recall of MPs act?

Allows petition to be triggered if MP is imprisoned/suspended from HoC for >21 days.
If 10% of eligible voters sign petition, by-election is called.

1979 Election Impact

• Initiated 18 years of Conservative Rule (Thatcher to 90, Major to '9)

• Called after Callghan lost vote of no confidence. (most recent time)

• Modest initial majority, which increased in '83 and '87.

• Labour fell apart over left/right infighting until Blair.

1979 Election Results

76% Turnout, 43 Majority.

Conservative - 339 seats, +62. 44% popular vote

Labour - 269 seats, -50. 37% popular vote

Liberal - 11 seats, -2, 13.8% popular vote.

1997 Election Impact

• Paved way for 13 years of Labour

• Blair PM until 2007 (Brown succeeded)

• Lib Dems became significant

• Conservatives ruined by divisions, leadership & inability to be relevant to contemporary society.

• 71.4% Turnout, 179 Majority

1997 Election Stats

71.4% Turnout, 179 Majority,

Labour - 418 seats - +145 - 43.2% Pop vote

Conservative - 165 seats - -178 - 30.7% Pop vote

Lib Dem - 46 seats - +28 - 16.8% Pop vote

2019 Election Impact

'Brexit Election'

Gave Boris mandate to take UK out of EU

Conservatives entered as minority, achieved largest majority since Thatcher in '87

Labour lost 30 seats in the 'red wal' heartlands of Northern England & The Midlands. 67.3% Turnout, 80 Majority.

2019 Election Stats

Conservative - 365 seats - +47 seats - 43.6% Popular vote

Labour - 202 seats - -59 seats - 32.1% pop vote

Lib Dem - 11 - -1 - 11.5% pop vote

2024 Election Results

Labour - 412 seats - +211 - 33.7% pop vote

Conservative - 121 seats - -251 - 23.7% pop vote

Lib Dem - 72 seats - +64 - 12.2% pop vote

Reform - 5 seats - +5 - 14.3% pop vote

HoL case for/against democratic legitimacy

• Most members appointed by PMs

• Crossbench peers nominated since 2000 by independent HoL commission.

• All hereditary peers removed due to House of Lords (Hereditary Peers) Act 2026, removed 92 excepted hereditary peers.

ECHR failure?

• Government can derogate from 1998 HRA, stating that parts have no legal authority in certain situations

• Following 9/11 the government used this to detain foreign nationals suspected of terrorism who couldn't be immediately deported. (Repealed in 2005)

Who owns the media?

• Murdoch group owns a number of British newspapers (The Times, The Sunday Times & The Sun).

Turnout for general elections from 1945 to 1997

76%

E-petition examples?

• 2019 e-petition against Bozo's suspension of parliament (which would've stopped debate on UK's exit from EU), had 1.7mn signatures.

Hapathy in voting?

• Low turnout in 2001 and 2005 (booming economy, contement higher) vs 2010 (higher turnout, unoptimistic economy) | - Perhaps just apathy, - people don't care, 'politics don't affect me' mindset.

Turnout for Scottish independence referendum?

• 84.6%

What % of politicians are out for themselves according to the public?

• A 2021 survey found 63% believed politicians 'out for themselves'. 

What happened when E-voting was trialled in European parliament?

In 2004, E-voting was trialled to significant claims of election fraud in the european parliament.

What is the turnout like in Australia?

Over 90%, they have compulsory voting.

Labour breaking election promises?

• In 2024, Labour did a u-turn on their stance on winter fuel payments.

Christine Keeler 1963 Scandal?

• Keeler got with John Profumo, who then got with a soviet attaché. (Leaked state secrets essentially) |

MP Expenses Scandal notable example + Keir

• Somebody claimed back £6.50 for a toilet seat. | - Keir received over £100,000 in gifts.

Suffrage is what?

Franchise, - the ability/right to vote in public elections.

Voting system before 1832

• 2 types of constituencies, counties and boroughs. | - Plural voting existed | - Women couldn't vote (although some women who owned property exercised franchise)

Rotten Boroughs

• Low population so easily manipulatable/corruptible votes, wealthy could effectively nominate MPs.

Counties right to vote (>1832)

• Franchise given to freehold property owners worth £2 |

Boroughs right to vote

• Different from place to place depending on local rules/tradition. Someplaces all freemen could vote, some property ownership, some to do with tax.

Great Reform Act of 1832

• Eliminated rotten boroughs and created new seats for urban areas (Manchester).

• Granting vote to tenant farmers and smaller property holders in counties. - -

• Standarised franchise right in boroughs. (Male householders who paid yearly rental of £10 or more, i.e. middle class)

• Officially eliminated women's franchise.

• Electorate now 5% of adult population

1867 Franchise Changes

• Borough householders enfranchised | - Electorate rises from 1 mil to 2 mil (13% adult pop)

1884 Franchise Changes

• Rural householders put on same footing as borough ones | - Electorate goes to 5 mil (25% adult population)

1918 Franchise Changes

• All men over 21 and women over 30 enfranchised | - 75% adult pop can vote

1928 Voting Changes

• Both sexes can vote at 21 | - Full adult suffrage

1948

• End of plural voting | - One vote, one person.

1969 Franchise Changes

• Voting age reduced to 18

When was NUWSS established?

National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies was established in 1897 under Millicent Fawcett. Members were non-violent middle-class women.

When and why was WSPU established?

Women's Social & Political Union (Suffragettes) established in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst as they felt the progress of NUWSS was too slow, more militant.

WSPU notable moments?

• Went on hunger-strike and were force fed by liberal government, giving liberal's bad PR.

• They suspended activity in 1914 (WW1), and women over 30 were enfranchised in 1918.

Arguments for/against 16+ getting franchise.

• 3/4 voted in Scottish referendum, - catch voters early and they'll be voters for life. (Not fair test as had unusually high turnout at all age groups)

• Participation levels of 18-24 y/o's lowest, why would 16/17 be any different.

Are 16 getting the franchise?

• Votes at 16 Coaliation got a study by electoral commission

• Scottish referendum, plus scottish and welsh parliaments allow 16 y/o's to vote. (circa 2015 and 2021)

• Labour committed to enshrining it, conservative against although some individuals are for it (Ruth Davidson)

• Electoral Reform Society also supports votes at 16.

What are sectional groups?

Type of pressure group, - promote interest of an occupation/group in society. | Membership often restricted (e.g. Law Society only open to Welsh/English solicitors)

What are cause/promotional groups?

Focused on achieving specific goal, or drawing attention to a specific issue/related issues, membership to anyone

What are social movements

A type of pressure groups, similiar to cause groups but more loose .Seek to achieve a single objective, e.g. in 2021 Insulate Britain blocked roads to draw attention to their campaign for governemtn funding of insulation for social housing.

National Farmer Union

An insider group, who offer government their specialise knowledge in return for influence over policy, they used these links to bring the 2013 badger cull.

British Medical Association (BMA)

Usually insider, but conservative refused to increase junior doctor pay, so they supported strike action just before 2024 general election.

Negotations resumed after election and Labour Health Secretary got through an accepted pay offer.

Pressure groups with resources

• RSPCA employs 1300 people and can take out full-page advertisments (large membership)

• Stop the War coalition organised some largest demonstrations in UK history (2mn against Iraq War), but often are out of step with government and wider public opinion, e.g. they condemnded the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine but also hold NATO's expansion into eastern europe responsible.

Pressure groups with leadership

Wildlife and Countryside link (umbrella organisation, brought together animal welfare groups like RSPCA).

In '22, they played a part in passage of legislation recognised animal sentience.

Pressure groups with public support

Pressure groups whom align with public opinion more successful.

Media coverage crucial as well/having a well-known personality (Marcus Rashford and FareShare who won a policy u-turn from a reluctant government on giving free school meals to children during summer holidays)

Insider groups with good government attitude

• National Farmers Union's links to Defra instrumental in bringing the 2013 Badger cull, in opposition to those who wanted a more 'humane' vaccination approach.  |

• Government listens to those who have specialist knowledge of policy area and who they have common ground with.

Extinction Rebellion

Founded in 2018. 

Have obstructed traffic, glued themselves to public buildings.

Some stunts have alienated public opinion, namely when they held up a Tube train which low-paid workers used.

Start of 2023, they switched to softer form of activism.

Unclear how succesful they have been, but now no longer hold media attention.

Some members left to start Just Stop Oil and Insulate Britain.

What was the Thatcher’s conservative shift towards a free-market oriented approach attributed too?

Thatcher’s patronage of right-wing think tanks like Centre for Policy Studies and Adam Smith institute.

Liz Truss’ Chancellor worked for which think tank?

Kwasi Karteng worked for Bow Circle.

Lobbying information

• Employs 4000, £2bn spent on it annually.

• Influence uncertain

• Up until 2014, lobbyists regulated themselves, now they must register (if lobbying for a 3rd party) if activities include discussing policy, legislation or government contracts with a minister or senior civil servant.

Corporations information

• A lot of business leaders appointed to Lords (Richard Walker, appointed as Labour peer after swapping allegiance from Conservative).

• British Soft Drinks association expressed opposition to a tax on sugary drinks to Conservatives at a conference, but government persisted with their policy.

Major Milestones in Rights

• Magna Carta, 1215, against King John, foundation of rights of citizen, mostly outdated and symbolic now.

• ECHR, 1950, UK Citizens could appeal to a court outside UK, although it's a time-consuming and expensive process.

• HRA, 1998, gave defined rights to UK citizens which could now be defended in UK courts without going to strasbourg.

• Equality Act, 2010, brought earlier pieces of legislaiton against discrimination and unfair treatment, outlined nine protected characteristics and made it illegal to discriminate against them.

Judges power around HRA

All new legislation must be compliant. | They can declare old legislation as incompatible, but can't legally compel parliament to change (parliamentary sovereignty).

Decline in judicial review

4240 in 2000

15600 in 2013

2400 in 2022

In 2020, judicial review forced Bozo to perform a U-Turn on inaccurate examination grades set during covid by an algorithm.

How did Judges create a privacy law?

Gave priority to right to privacy over freedom of expression, despite no specific legislation being passed by parliament.

In 2018, Sir Cliff Richard won a case against BBC after they filmed a police raid on his house in connection with groundless claims of sexual assault.

BBC apologised but asserted this was a blow against press freedom.

Important to note this may just be the press talking the issue up as they benefit from having less press laws.

Rwanda Asylum Plan

Supreme court declared initial Rwanada plan unlawful in Nov 2023

Rishi responded by signing a treaty with Rwanda and bringing forward a bill that declared it a safe country. 

Divisive amongst conservatives, hardline wanted to simply leave ECHR, moderates felt it meant UK not honouring legal commitments

Bill became law in April 2024, but Labour repealed bill as one of their first actions in power.

Counterterrorism and the erosion of Rights

Following 9/11 and 7/7 (2005), Blair introduced control orders enabling suspects to be closely monitored (electronic tagging, removal of mobile phones and internet access, and requirement to report to Police). 

Some measures halted by public/parliamentary opposition (e.g. Blair tried to increase time a suspect could be held w/ charged from 14 to 90 days, compromising on 28 days and giving up increasing it to 42 days after a Lords defeat in 2008). | n.b. Rights also eroded in covid but like it was chill

2022 Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act

Increased power of police to define concept of 'serious disruption' (limits on noise). Liberty warned Suella Braverman (Home Sec) in 2023, not justified in encouraging police to take tough line with palestinian protestors.

Public opinion shows divided beliefs, 50% opposed to Armistice Day demostrantion, 34% favour.

Howard League for Penal Reform

Unsuccessful as people dgaf about convincted criminals | Won minor issues like 2014 High court ruling stopping government to ban families sending books to prisoners. |

Black Wednesday

UK forced to withdraw sterling from European Exchange Rate mechanism due to failing to keep exchange rate above required lower limit.

1979 Policy and Manifestos

Both parties moderate

High priority to bringing inflation down

Callaghan from Labour's centre-right and resisted the left.

Thatcher policy statement showed she's not moving the party right.

Mention of returning nationalised industries to private hands and removing trade union powers, but no 'radical crusade'.

Meant Callaghan warning to the electorate of a lurch to right as not-credible.

1979 Election Campaign

Conservatives did modern advertising courtesy of publicity specialists (Gordon Reece & Tim Bell)

Thatcher amenable to 'photo opportunities' (tasting tea to holding newborn calf)

Labour campaign 'lacked awareness of finer points of presentation'

Callaghan considered better PM (20 pts ahead on average), so Thatcher turned down offer of televised debate (acceptable as no one else had in the past)

1979 Wider Political Context

Labour weak, 'tentative' signs of improving economy but no doubt that Conservatives would win.

Callaghan minority government made them vulnerable in Commons

Mistimed election, doing so in the 'Winter of Discontent'

Media showed images of miserable Britain

Callaghan got off plane and said 'Crisis? What Crisis!?'

Election triggered by withdrawal of support for government by nationalist parties after devolution referendums went against government.

Callaghan had to go to election at worst possible time for his party.

1997 Policies + Manifesto

Drove forward modernisation that his predeccesors had tentatively begun

'New Labour' abandonded old policies (nationalisation, tax-increases and strengthening of trade union powers)

Tough signals on law an order (important to voters due to increasing crime rates in early 90s)

Won endorsement of Press (the Sun & the Times)

New Labour was moderate and promoted 'middle england'.

Reduced primary school classes and cut hospital waiting lists as policy points

Blair placed emphasis on constitutional reform (giving common ground with Lib Dems, encouraging tactical voting, which may have added up to 30 seats)

1997 Election Campaign

Employed PR experts to handle media 

Targeted marginal seats over safe seats |

However, in marginal seats votes increased 12.5% and in neglected seats 13.4%

Sun + Times Endorsement

Party's lead in opinion polls decreased throughout course of campaign.

1997 Wider Political Context

Low turnout |

Conservatives destroyed their brand (worst election result since 1832, 30.7% pop vote) | - Electorate remember Black Wednesday of 1992 over the modest economic improvement which followed (no 'feel good factor' as fruits of recovery weren't in tax cuts or public services)

From 1992, Labour was ahead in opinion polls.

Tory incompetence confirmed after a series of sleaze and divisions over relationship with EU.

2019 Party policy + manifesto

Contrasting policies.

Boris Johnson 'get brexit done'. (needed majority)

Labour wanted to negotiate better deal and then do a second referendum

Labour wanted tax rises on the rich, renationalisation and ambitious public investment to end 'decade of austerity'.

Conservatives offered modest spending increases on NHS, police & infrastructure.

Labelled Labour as irresponsible and that they'd start a new economic crisis.

Lib Dems wanted to cancel Brexit entirely.

2019 Election Campaign

Campaigned on 'Get Brexit Done

Labour not clear on the issue and their policy announcements failed to gain public support.

Corbyn declaring to remain neutral in 2nd referendum seen as cowardly

Televised debates had limited outcome, Johnson performed only marginally better in TV studios.

Rebranded twitter account to factcheckuk to disguise reality of pro-conservative messaging

Opposition poorly organised, Labour + Lib Dem not work together, and while Green, Lib Dem & Cymru agreed not to run against eachother in 60 seats, there was limited effect. | - UKIP (Farage) chose not to contest conservative-held seats.

2019 Wider Political Context

Conservatives ahead from Summer of 2019, so campaign not that deep

People frustrated that Brexit had not yet ocurred, especially so in Labour's red wall, where Conservatives won 33/63 seats.

35% of Labour leavers said Corbyn's leadership was problem, 19% said Brexit.

Corbyn failed to take clear stance on the issue.

Corbyn seen as extreme and antisemitic accusations flung in at him from the Labour left. | Many saw Corbyn as a london-based clique.

Some longer-term dissatification with Labour, but not too major.

What does ABC1 mean?

Middle-class 'white collar'

What is C2DE?

Working-class 'blue collar'

Class voting alignment 2024

36% ABC1 and 33% C2DE preferred Labour.

25% ABC1 and 23% C2DE preferred Conservatives

2019 Class Turnout Link

In 2019, 68% classes A & B voted compared to 53% of D & E

Popular vote for Labour + Conservative over time?

1979, 81%

1997, 74%

2015, 67%

2017, 82%

2024, 57%

Skilled workers voting style

Thatcher -> New Labour -> 2010 Abandonment -> 2024 back to Labour

Gender in voting behaviour?

Women preferred Conservatives (prefer stable society + main carers so respond to Tory emphasis on family)

During Blair, difference lessened (young women more likely than men to vote Labour). Due to increasing employment or Labour free nursey policy.

Gender turnout 2019?

63% Men voted.

59% Women voted.

Difference between men & women of same social class also similar.

2019 Women age voting conservative stat?

17% of 18-24 voted Conservative.

59% of <55 voted Conservative.

Party leaders targeted young women through sites like Mumsnet

Old VS Young voting Labour, 2019

In 2019, Only 14% of >70 voted Labour compared to 56% of 18-24.

Old VS Young voting Labour, 2024

In 2024 only 20% of >70 voted Labour compared to 41% of 18-24.

Age Turnout 2019

74% over 65 voted compared to 47% of 18 to 24.

Ethnic minority labour:conservative 2019

64% to 20%

Ethnic minority vs white turnout 2019

63% White voted

52% Minority voted | n.b. Asians prefer Conservatives compared to Africans (small business emphasis)

Region voting bias

Linked to class difference largely.

In south and rural/suburbs (except London) most vote Conservative, as are homeowners/employed.

In industural/urban, north, Wales and (lesser extent) Midlands (poorer areas), strong loyalty to Labour.

Turnout across regions 2019

South East 70.2% turnout | North East 64.2% (less affluent)

Social Class: AB

Higher/intermediate managerial, administrative and professionals.

Social Class: C1

Supervisory, clerical and junior managerial, administrative and professional occupations.

Social Class: C2

Skilled Manual occupations

Social class: DE

Semi-skilled and unskilled manual occupations, unemployed and lowest grade occupations.

Televised debates popuarlity over time

2010 - 9.6 million ITV Debate

2024 - 4.8 million

Opinion polls wrong in 1992?

They did face to face and failed to predict John Major's slim victory. Afterwards started to do telephone polling.

Opinion polls wrong in 2015

Predicted SNP Scottish success, but predicted Labour:Conservative to be 34:34, ended up 30:36.

They didn't survey enough retired, and surveyed too many politically engaged youth.

Opinion polls wrong in 2019?

Accurate vote shares, less reliable seat shares because of FPTP.

They predicted a conservative lead of fewer than 30, exit polls predicted 86-seat majority which was far more accurate.

Internet access over time

2000, only 26% households

2010, 82%

2020, 96%

2017 primary influence on 18-24 y/o

50% influenced by social media compared to 28% by newspapers and magazines.

How much did vote leave spend on Facebook?

£2.7mn on targetted facebook ads.

Newspapers Brexit influence

Long term negative presentation of EU by Daily Telegraph, Daily Mail and Sun helped shape public opinion

These 3 had 4x more circulation than pro-remain (The Times, Guardian and Daily Mirror) combined.

Bozo being a pussy?

In 2019, he refused to be intereviewed by BBC's Andrew Neil, known for in-depth questioning style.