PSC 1 Midterm 1 SG

Psychology

the study of the human mind and behavior

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience

Association

occurs when two or more events are paired together in time and/or space

Unconditioned Stimulus

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

Unconditioned Response

An automatic response to a US

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus that does not produce a response prior to conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with a US, triggers a CR

Conditioned Response

a learned response to a stimulus that was previously a NS

Pavlov’s Experiments in Classical Conditioning

types of learning in which we associate an involuntary response to a stimulus

Preparedness

a biological or evolutionary predisposition of oneself to form associations for survival

ex. food poisoning

Extinction

the diminished association between the US and the CS after the US is removed

Spontaneous Recovery

when the association between the US and the CS reappears after extinction

Generalization

learned responses or behaviors are used to new but similar stimuli or situation

Discrimination

the ability to distinguish between two stimuli

Classical Conditioning

forms an association between two stimuli (US and NS), often automatically

Operant Conditioning

uses the relationship between ACTIONS and CONSEQUENCES to shape behavior

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

• if a behavior is rewarded, it is more likely to happen again

• if a behavior is punished, it is less likely to happen again

Reinforcement

any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response/behavior

Punishment

any event that decreases the frequency of a preceding response/behavior

Positive reinforcement

response/behavior is strengthened by providing a desirable stimulus after response

Negative reinforcement

response/behavior is strengthened by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli

Positive Punishment

response/behavior is weakened by adding an aversive stimulus immediately after behavior

Negative Punishment

response/behavior is weakened by removing a desirable stimulus immediately after behavior

Memory

our nervous systems ability to obtain and retain information for later use

Information Processing Model (IPM)

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Sensory storage

brief storage of sensory information collected by the five senses

• unattended information is lost

Short-Term Storage

information that can be manipulated in working memory

• ~20-30 seconds

• 7±2 bits of info

• information that isn’t maintained is lost

Long-Term Storage

permanent storage space for learned information and experiences

Iconic Memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

length: less than a few tenths of a second

Echoic Memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

length: 3-4 seconds

Misinformation Effect

when people are informed of misleading information after an event, they often include it in the event

Forgetting

can happen at any memory stage

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

one remembers less and less information day by day

Chunking

organizing information into similar, manageable units

• can expand one’s short term memory capacity

Working Memory

can hold AND manipulate 3-5 pieces of information for a few seconds

• depends on control of attention and mental effort

Explicit Memory

information that we can readily tell someone about

Episodic Memory

memories for PERSONAL events in a specific time and space

Semantic Memory

facts and general knowledge about the world

Implicit Memory

seemingly automatic recall of information that we cannot readily express

Emotion

added via automatic processing

Procedural Memory

motor skills and habits

Retrieval Cues

Definition: a clue that prompts retrieval

• memories are held in storage by a web of associations

Priming

testing words that are likely to be an answer for a certain prompt

Concepts

mental grouping of ideas/information

Prototype

the first example that comes to mind

Categories

once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category prototype

Schema

cluster of related concepts that help your brain make quicker decisions

Types of Schemas

• Person

• Social

• Self

• Event

Algorithms

problem solving strategy

• always finds the answer

Heuristic

a mental shortcut for problem solving

Why do we rely on heuristics?

• effortful reduction

• replace complicated questions with simpler ones

• Fast and frugal

Anchoring

Cognitive bias

• causes us to rely heavily on the first piece of information we are given about a topic

Random Assignment

takes any preexisting differences about anything and there is a 50/50 (equal) chance of ending up in either condition

Confirmation bias

when we ignore information that goes against our beliefs and search for evidence that supports our beliefs

Belief Perseverance

clinging on to your beliefs after contrary evidence that has been shown

Mental Set

tendency to approach a problem with the mindset that has worked for us previously

Representative Heuristic

Quick judgment based on mental prototype

Availability Heuristic

the things that are available to us are the things that we come to worry about the most

• how likely is this to happen to me

  • based on mental availability of an idea

Framing effect

the way we present an issue can affect decisions and judgments, even if logically identical

Sensation

the detection of external stimuli via our senses

AND

the transmission of this information to the brain

Perception

the brain’s process of organizing and interpreting sensory information so that it makes sense

Two Pathways for Processing Stimuli

1. Bottom-Up Processing

2. Top-Down Processing

Bottom-Up Processing

Real-time, data-driven sensory analysis

1. Sensory data brought to retina

2. Data transmitted to visual cortex

3. Data processed to form visual experience

Top-Down Processing

• information processing guided by higher-level mental processes;

• constructs perceptions based on previous experience and expectations

Psychophysics

the study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them

Definition of Transduction

conversion of one form of information into another that the brain can use

Steps of Transduction

1. Reception

2. Transformation

3. Delivery

Reception (Transduction)

sensory receptor in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin detect sensory information

Transformation (Transduction)

that sensory information is transformed into neural impulses

Delivery (Transduction)

the neural impulses are sent to the brain for processing

Absolute Thresholds

the minimum STIMULATION needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Signal Detection Theory

assumes that there is NO single absolute threshold and that detect depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness

Difference Threshold

the minimum DIFFERENCE a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of the time

Weber’s Law

states that for an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion, not a constant amount

Sensory Adaptation

when we are constantly exposed to a stimulus that does not change, we become less aware of it because our nerve cells fire less frequently

Selective Attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Inattentional Blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Retina

light-sensitive inner surface of the eye

Rods

• peripheral retina

• detect black, white, gray

Cones

• near center of retina (fovea)

• fine detail and color vision

• daylight or well-lit conditions

Theories on the Perception of Colors

• Young Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory

• Opponent Process Theory

Young Helmholtz Trichromatic Color Theory

Green, blue, and red

Opponent Process Theory

3 opponent pairs of receptors