Brain, Behaviorism, Perception, Learning

Midterm Material

Behavior

observable actions or responses to internal or external events.

Mind

the system that creates and controls cognitive functions such as perception, attention, memory, emotions, language, decision making, thinking, and reasoning.

Behaviorism

a psychological approach that studies observable behavior and argues that behavior is shaped by the environment.

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.

Stimulus

any detectable input from the environment.

Response

an observable reaction to a stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

learning that occurs when two stimuli are associated with each other.

Operant Conditioning

learning that occurs through associations between behaviors and their consequences such as rewards or punishments.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that initially produces no specific response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

a stimulus that naturally triggers a response without learning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

an automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response after conditioning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.

Generalization

responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to certain ones.

Law of Effect

behaviors followed by positive outcomes are more likely to be repeated.

Observational Learning

learning new behaviors by observing others.

Modeling

imitating behavior that has been observed in another person.

Thinking

the mental representation and manipulation of information.

Cognition

mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, storing, and using knowledge.

Cognitive Processes

mental activities such as perceiving, remembering, learning, and problem solving.

Cognitive Psychology

the branch of psychology that studies mental processes such as perception, memory, thinking, and language.

Structuralism

an early psychological approach that analyzed mental experiences by breaking them into components.

Functionalism

an approach that studies the purpose of behavior and mental processes.

Associationism

the idea that learning occurs through forming associations between events or ideas.

Rationalism

the belief that knowledge comes from reasoning and logic.

Empiricism

the belief that knowledge comes from experience and observation.

Mental Chronometry

measuring the time required for mental processes.

Contiguity

events that occur close together in time or space form strong associations.

Similarity

events that are similar tend to be associated with one another.

Frequency

events that occur together often form stronger associations.

Recency

more recent events create stronger associations.

Sensation

the process by which sensory receptors detect stimulus energy from the environment.

Perception

the brain’s interpretation and organization of sensory information.

Sensory Receptors

specialized cells that detect sensory stimuli and convert them into neural signals.

Transduction

converting sensory stimuli into electrical neural impulses.

Electromagnetic Radiation

energy in the form of light waves that can be detected by the visual system.

Wavelength

the distance between repeating points of a wave.

Amplitude

the height of a wave and its intensity.

Frequency

the number of waves passing a point in a given period of time.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

the full range of electromagnetic radiation including visible light.

Sclera

the white outer protective layer of the eye.

Iris

the colored part of the eye that regulates how much light enters the eye.

Pupil

the opening in the center of the iris that allows light to enter the eye.

Cornea

the transparent front layer of the eye that protects it and helps bend light.

Lens

the transparent structure that focuses light onto the retina.

Retina

the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye that processes visual information.

Fovea

the center of the retina responsible for sharp vision.

Optic Nerve

the nerve that carries visual information from the eye to the brain.

Blind Spot

the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye and no receptors are present.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that carry signals to and from the CNS.

Cognitive Neuroscience

the study of how brain activity relates to thinking and behavior.

Neuron

a nerve cell that transmits information in the nervous system.

Glial Cells

support cells that provide structure and help neurons function.

Sensory Neurons

neurons that carry information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

neurons that send signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

neurons in the central nervous system that communicate between sensory and motor neurons.

Soma

the cell body of a neuron.

Dendrites

branchlike structures that receive signals from other neurons.

Axon

the long fiber that sends signals away from the neuron.

Myelin Sheath

a fatty covering around axons that speeds up neural signals.

Axon Terminal

the end of the neuron that releases neurotransmitters.

Synapse

the small gap between neurons where chemical communication occurs.

Neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

Action Potential

the electrical impulse that travels down a neuron.

Threshold

the minimum level of stimulation required for a neuron to fire.

Refractory Period

the brief time after firing when a neuron cannot fire again.

Resting Potential

the neuron’s stable negative electrical charge when it is not firing.

Depolarization

the phase when sodium enters the neuron and the electrical charge becomes positive.

Repolarization

the phase when the neuron returns to its negative resting state.

All-or-None Principle

a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

MRI

a brain imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to show brain structure.

fMRI

brain imaging that shows brain activity by measuring blood flow.

EEG

a technique that records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes on the scalp.

PET Scan

a brain imaging technique that uses radioactive glucose to measure brain activity.

Introspection

examining one’s own thoughts and mental experiences.

Pragmatism

a philosophical approach that focuses on the practical usefulness of ideas.

Cognitive Revolution

the shift in psychology during the 1950s and 1960s toward studying mental processes again.

John B. Watson

psychologist who founded behaviorism.

Ivan Pavlov

scientist who discovered classical conditioning.

Edward Thorndike

psychologist who studied animal learning and created the Law of Effect.

Albert Bandura

psychologist known for observational learning and the Bobo Doll experiment.

James McKeen Cattell

psychologist who studied reaction time and mental chronometry.

Wilhelm Wundt

founder of structuralism and early experimental psychology.

William James

founder of functionalism and pragmatism.

Alan Turing

scientist associated with the cognitive revolution and information processing theory.

Little Albert Experiment

study demonstrating fear conditioning through classical conditioning.

Bobo Doll Experiment

experiment showing children imitate aggressive behavior they observe.

Generalization

Associating stimuli similar to the CS with the CS
• Things that are similar to the CS will cause a similar response

Discrimination

knowing the difference between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and other unrelated stimuli.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

a behavior is rewarded only after a specific, unchanging number of responses

Variable-Ratio Schedule

a behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable number of responses

Top Down

Experience and knowledge shape perceptions
“you see an object. it looks like every apple you have seen. you decide it is an apple”

Bottom up

Focus on shapes and individual features

“you see a thing. it is red, it is smooth. you bite into it, it is sweet and has white on the inside. you decide it is an apple”

Left fusiform gyrus

brain region on basal surface associated with perceiving letters, visual processing

Inferior temporal gyrus

fold on the temporal lobe associated with perceiving numbers

Feature-matching

mage demons → feature demons → cognitive demons → decision demon

Image demon

records there is an image

Feature demon

“yells” when they detect a specific feature