PolC1000 Final Exam Terms

Article I

Establishes the legislative branch of the government, including the structure and powers of Congress.

Article II

Establishes the executive branch, outlining the powers and duties of the President.

Article III

Establishes the judicial branch, including the Supreme Court and lower courts.

Article IV

Defines the relationship between states and the federal government, including full faith and credit and privileges and immunities.

Article V

Describes the process for amending the Constitution.

Article VI

Establishes the supremacy of federal law and the requirement for an oath of office.

Article VII

Outlines the procedure for ratification of the Constitution.

The constitution

is the foundational legal document of the United States, establishing the framework of government and outlining the rights of the citizens. It includes seven articles and has been amended 27 times.

The Bill of Rights

is the first ten amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing fundamental rights and freedoms to individuals against government infringement.

Federalism

is a system of government where power is shared between one central national government and smaller state or regional governments.

Civil liberties

the freedom that we as individuals have that is protected against government have  (GOVERNMENT BACK OFF)

Civil Rights

 are certain rights to certain types of protection that the government has the right to take action (EXPECTING THE GOVERNMENT TO ACT )

Separate but equal doctrine

was a law that allowed racial segregation in the United States.

incorporation theory

is the legal rule that forces state and local governments to follow the U.S. Bill of Rights.

free-rider problem

is when people benefit from a shared resource or service without paying for it.

13^th Amendments

Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.

14^th Amendments

Granted citizenship to everyone born in the U.S. and guaranteed "equal protection under the law" and "due process."

15^th Amendments

Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Republican form of government

system where the people hold the power and elect representatives to make laws and govern for them

Supremacy Doctrine

is the legal rule that federal laws are more powerful than state laws

Separation of powers

the rule that divides government into three separate branches so no single group gets too much control

checks and balances

the system that allows each branch of government to block or amend the actions of the other two branches

Incentives- solidary

These are the ______ rewards you get from being part of the group:

Camaraderie, friendship, feeling of belonging.

Doing activities with people who care about the same issues as you.

Incentives- material

Tangible, economic rewards you get from being a member of an interest group. They often mean saving or gaining money, or getting useful services.

Incentives- purposive

Benefits that come from supporting a cause or purpose you deeply believe in, not from money or social fun. People join because they feel a strong moral or ideological commitment to an issue.

Public interest groups

organizations that fight for causes that benefit everyone in society, not just their own members

  indirect techniques

Using constituents as lobbyist-Another indirect strategy where interest groups encourage ordinary voters (constituents) to personally contact their own elected officials and push for or against specific policies.
Generating public perspective- An indirect strategy interest groups use to influence politicians by first shaping public opinion, then letting that public pressure push elected officials to act.

direct techniques

lobbying- a direct conversation with the politician promoting the issues that matter to the interest group.
Rations/ rating - Interest groups score or grade politicians based on how often they support the group’s positions.
Building allies -When different interest groups join together to work on a common issue or goal.
Campaign assistance (endorsements) -Help that interest groups give to political candidates’ election campaigns, often including an official endorsement.

What makes an interest groups powerful

when it has the money, members, or expert knowledge to force lawmakers to listen to them.

regulating lobbyists

making laws that force political influencers to report who pays them and how much money they spend

Federalist #10

an essay by James Madison arguing that a large republic is the best way to control dangerous political factions (special interest groups).

Interest group functions

Linkage mechanism -Channels (like media or parties) connecting citizens to government.

Representation -Acting on behalf of citizens' interests in government.

Participation / mobilization -

Citizens taking action (like voting).

Organizing people to take action.

Education and information - Informing the public about political issues and policies.

Agenda setting / influencing policy -
Deciding which issues get attention.
Shaping laws and official decisions

Monitoring government (watchdog role) - Holding officials accountable by exposing corruption and actions.

proliferation of interest groups

rapid increase / expansion in number (growing spread of interest groups)

Political parties

a group of people whose main goal is to control government by contesting elections and winning office, so that they can make and implement public policy

Political party functions

Winning Elections

Educating and Informing Voters
Governing

Connecting Citizens to Government

Acting as the Opposition

Recruiting and Nominating Candidates

reasons for two-party endurance

winner take all system per district, pluraality rule , effect on thrid parties, long term outcome

Three faces of a party

party in the electorate - Ordinary voters who identify with a political party (Democrats, Republicans, etc.).
Party in Government

All elected officials who hold office under a party label:

President, members of Congress, governors, state legislators, etc.

Example names mentioned:

Donald Trump, JD Vance, Chuck Schumer, Hakeem Jeffries, Mike Johnson

They are the governing face of the party.
party as an organization - Elected officials who belong to the party and work together in government, such as members of Congress or the president.

winner takes all

an electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who come in first in their constituencies

plurality v majority

• Majority = more than half of the votes.

• Formula: 50% + 1.

• Example:

  • 100 votes → majority = 51+.

• Plurality = the most votes, even if less than 50%.

• Example:

  • A: 47%

  • B: 45%

  • C: 8%

  • A wins by plurality (has more than B or C), but not a majority.

Impact of minor parties

Small parties can also be instrumental in forming a majority, joining with bigger parties to form a coalition government.

Congress

It is the lawmaking branch of the federal government. It is bicameral

bicameralism

means a government has two separate lawmaking groups, like the House and the Senate

functions of Congress

Lawmaking

Oversight

Conflict resolution

Representation:

Trustee-view Instructed- view of representation

The ______ view states that representatives should use their own judgment, knowledge, and conscience to make decisions for the public good. Instead of merely mimicking the immediate wishes of their constituents, they act as trusted experts voted into office to do what is ultimately best for the community.

The _________ view states that representatives must vote strictly according to the explicit wishes and mandates of their constituents.
what is the trustee view of representation in political science

Powers of Congress

Financial Control: Levies taxes, borrows money, and coins currency.

Economic Regulation: Controls interstate and international commerce.

National Defense: Declares war and funds the military.

Implied Powers: Pass laws necessary to execute enumerated powers.

Oversight & Impeachment: Investigates agencies and removes federal officials.

House - Senate differences

Characteristic	H	S
Requirements for membership	At least 25 years old; 7 years citizenship; resident of state	At least 30 years old, 9 years of citizenship; resident of the state
Constitutional powers	Initiates all revenue bills	Confirms many presidential nominations to the executive and judicial branches
	Passes all articles of impeachment	Tries impeached officials
		Ratifies treaties
Membership	435 members	100 members
Term of office	2 years	6 years
Constituencies	Usually smaller	Usually larger
Centralization of power	More centralized, stronger leadership	Less centralized; weaker leadership
Political prestige	Less prestige	More prestige
Role in policymaking	More influential on the budget; more specialized	More influential on foreign affairs; less specialized
Turnover	Small	Moderate
Role of seniority	More important in determining power	Less important in determining power
Procedures	Limited debate; limits on floor amendments allowed	Unlimited debate

filibuster-cloture

It takes 60 votes to stop a __________ through a process called _______

_________ simply means ending debate so a vote can finally happen

reapportionment

process of redistributing seats in the United States House of Representatives among the states based on population changes shown in the U.S. census, which occurs every 10 years.

Powers of incumbency

Name recognition

Franking privilege

Media access/visibility

Casework (helping constituents)

Fundraising advantage

Experience and record in office

Safe districts/gerrymandering

Staff and institutional resources

membership profile

Demographics (age, race, gender, religion)

Socioeconomic status (income, education, occupation)

Geographic location

Political ideology and beliefs

committees (different types)

standing __________

joint __________

conference __________

select __________

How a Bill Becomes Law

1. Bill introduced

2. Sent to committee

3. Subcommittee review

4. Committee action

5. Floor debate

6. Vote in first chamber

7. Sent to second chamber

8. Committee, debate, and vote in second chamber

9. Conference committee resolves differences (if needed)

10. Final approval by both chambers

11. Presidential action (sign, veto, pocket veto, or take no action)

12. Veto override by Congress (if applicable)

Leadership in the House

• Speaker of the House: Leader of the House; presides over sessions; most powerful member.

• Majority Leader: Helps plan and schedule the majority party’s agenda.

• Minority Leader: Leader of the opposition party.

• Whips (Majority & Minority): Count votes and make sure members vote with their party.

• Committee Chairs: Lead committees and control most bill details (from majority party).

Leadership in the Senate

• Vice President: Official President of the Senate; only votes to break ties.

• President pro tempore: Senior senator in majority party; mainly ceremonial, presides when VP is absent.

• Majority Leader: Most powerful senator; controls Senate agenda and scheduling.

• Minority Leader: Leads the opposition party; coordinates strategy.

• Whips (Majority & Minority): Count votes and keep party members aligned.

Electoral College

• System used to elect the U.S. President.

• Each state gets electors equal to its total Senators + Representatives.

• Most states use “winner-take-all” (candidate who wins popular vote in state gets all electors).

• A candidate needs 270 electoral votes to win.

• Electors formally cast the votes for President.

The Presidency

• Head of the executive branch of the U.S. government

• Enforces and carries out laws

• Commander-in-Chief of the military

• Can veto bills from Congress

• Appoints federal judges, ambassadors, and cabinet members (with Senate approval)

• Represents the U.S. in foreign policy and diplomacy

The many roles of the President

• Chief Executive: Enforces laws and runs the federal government

• Commander-in-Chief: Leads the U.S. military

• Chief Diplomat: Handles foreign policy and makes treaties (with Senate approval)

• Chief Legislator: Proposes laws and can veto bills

• Chief of State: Symbolic leader of the country (represents the U.S.)

• Party Leader: Leads their political party and helps set its agenda

• Economic Leader: Influences the economy through policy and budgeting

executive orders

• Official directives issued by the President

• Have the force of law for federal agencies

• Do not require approval from Congress

• Used to manage how laws are enforced or to direct the executive branch

• Can be challenged in court or overturned by a future president or Congress through legislation

executive agreements

• Agreements made between the U.S. President and foreign governments

• Do not require Senate approval (unlike treaties)

• Used to handle foreign policy quickly and informally

• Still legally binding on the U.S. government

• Can be reversed by a future president or changed by law

emergency powers

• Special powers the President can use during national emergencies

• Allow faster action in crises (war, natural disasters, security threats)

• Can include deploying troops, controlling resources, or issuing emergency orders

• Usually based on laws passed by Congress

• Limited in time and can be reviewed or blocked by Congress or courts

State of the Union Address

• Yearly speech by the President to Congress

• Reports on the condition of the country

• Outlines the President’s goals and policy agenda

• Recommended by the Constitution

• Broadcast to the American public

• Used to influence public opinion and Congress

War Powers Resolution

• Law passed in 1973 to limit presidential war powers

• President must notify Congress within 48 hours of sending troops into conflict

• Military action without congressional approval is limited to 60–90 days

• Designed to ensure Congress has a role in declaring war

• Can lead to debate between Congress and the President over military authority

executive privilege

• Right of the President to keep certain communications confidential

• Used to protect national security and sensitive executive discussions

• Allows refusal to share some information with Congress or courts

• Not absolute—can be limited by the Supreme Court

• Often debated when Congress investigates the executive branch

the cabinet and its departments

• The Cabinet is a group of top advisors to the President

• Made up of heads of major executive departments

• Each department handles a specific area of government (like defense or education)

• Cabinet members are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate

• Main departments include: State, Defense, Treasury, Justice, and others

• Help carry out laws and advise the President

Line-item veto

• Power to reject specific parts of a bill without vetoing the whole bill

• Often used for spending or budget items

• U.S. presidents do not currently have this power

• The Supreme Court ruled the federal line-item veto unconstitutional in 1998

• Some state governors do have line-item veto power

National Security Council

• Group that advises the President on ______ and foreign policy

• Includes the President, Vice President, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense, and other key officials

• Coordinates military, intelligence, and diplomatic policies

• Helps the President respond to ______________ crises

• Part of the executive branch of government

impeachment

• Process of charging a president or federal official with serious misconduct

• The House of Representatives votes to impeach (bring charges)

• The Senate holds a trial to decide whether to remove the official from office

• Requires a 2/3 Senate vote for removal

• Based on “treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors” in the Constitution

The Courts

• Judicial branch of the U.S. government

• Interprets laws and settles legal disputes

• Includes federal and state court systems

• Federal courts include district courts, courts of appeals, and the Supreme Court

• Protects rights and ensures laws follow the Constitution

Stare decisis

• Legal principle meaning “let the decision stand”

• Courts follow precedents set by earlier cases

• Helps keep court decisions consistent and predictable

• Higher court decisions guide lower courts

• Precedents can be overturned by higher courts if needed

supreme court

• Highest court in the United States

• Final authority on interpreting the Constitution and federal laws

• Has 9 justices appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate

• Can declare laws or government actions unconstitutional

• Hears important appeals from lower courts

appellate jurisdiction

• Authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts

• Courts with appellate jurisdiction hear appeals, not new trials

• Can uphold, reverse, or remand lower court decisions

• The Supreme Court mainly has appellate jurisdiction

• Focuses on legal errors and interpretation of the law

original jurisdiction

• Authority of a court to hear a case first

• Trial takes place in the ________ court

• Involves hearing evidence and testimony

• The Supreme Court has ________ in certain cases between states or involving ambassadors

• Most ____________ cases are heard in lower courts

Judicial review

• Power of courts to declare laws or government actions unconstitutional

• Established by the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison

• Allows the judicial branch to check the powers of Congress and the President

• Helps protect the Constitution and citizens’ rights

• Key principle of checks and balances

judicial activism

• Belief that judges should interpret the Constitution broadly

• Courts may take an active role in shaping public policy

• Often involves overturning laws or precedents

• Supporters say it protects rights and adapts to change

• Critics say judges may exceed their proper role

judicial restraint

• Belief that judges should interpret the Constitution narrowly

• Courts should avoid making new policy decisions

• Strongly respect laws passed by Congress and state governments

• Prefer to follow precedent (stare decisis)

• Courts should only strike down laws if clearly unconstitutional

Strict constructionist

• Judge who interprets the Constitution very literally

• Focuses on the exact wording and original meaning of the text

• Limits the role of the courts in creating policy

• Believes changes should come from lawmakers, not judges

• Often associated with judicial restraint

What checks our courts

• President: appoints federal judges and Supreme Court justices

• Senate: confirms judicial appointments

• Congress: can pass laws to change court decisions (new legislation)

• Constitutional amendments: can override Supreme Court rulings

• Courts themselves: higher courts can overturn lower court decisions (appeals)

sources of judicial power

• U.S. Constitution: establishes the federal court system and its authority

• Federal laws (statutes): give courts authority to interpret and apply laws passed by Congress

• Case law / precedent: past court decisions guide future rulings (stare decisis)

• Jurisdiction rules: determine what cases courts can hear (original & appellate jurisdiction)

• Judicial review: power to declare laws or actions unconstitutional (established in Marbury v. Madison)