AQA a level pe Paper 2

Exercise physiology and biomechanics

Carbohydrates

-Simple and complex carbohydrates

-simple carbohydrates are found in fruit

-complex carbohydrates are found in nearly all plant based foods (pasta, bread, rice and vegetables)

- the principle use of energy in the body

-once digested they are converted to glucose

-this can then be stored in the muscles and liver as glycogen.

Fats

-Saturated fat (sweet and savoury foods) - cause weight gain

-trans fat (unsaturated fat found in meat and dairy)

-cholesterol (type of fat that circulates in the body)

-used during low intensity exercise as a provider of energy

-conserves glycogen for more intense exercise and useful for transporting fat soluble vitamins

Proteins

-Made up of amino acids

-important for muscle growth and repair

-meat, fish, eggs, dairy products

-minor source of energy and tend to be used more by power athletes who have a greater need to repair and develop muscle tissue

-makes individuals stronger and more injury resistant

Vitamins

-Essential nutrients that your body needs in small amounts in order to work properly

-fat soluble

-water soluble

Vitamin C

Green vegetables and fruits

protects cells and Keeps them healthy

helps maintenance of bones, teeth and ligaments

Vitamin D

Sunlight, oily fish, dairy products.

Has a role in absorption of calcium, which keeps bones and teeth healthy

B6

Meat, fish, eggs, bread, vegetables and cereals.

Helps form haemoglobin

helps the body to use and store energy from protein and carbohydrate in food.

B12

Red meat, dairy products and fish

makes red blood cells and keeps the nervous system healthy.

releases energy from food.

Minerals

Assist in bodily functions

include sodium (helps with the regulation of fluid levels in the body)

Iron (helps the formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells to transport oxygen)

calcium (the need for strong bones and teeth and is also necessary for efficient nerve and muscle function)

Fibre

Found in whole meal bread and pasta, potatoes, nuts, seeds, fruit, vegetables and pulses

can speed up digestion and prevent constipation. (Insoluble fibre)

Water

Important for hydration before during and after exercise

prevents dehydration.

Dietary supplements

Used to artificially manipulate performance, but these have both positive and negative effects

Creatine

Compound that is naturally made in the body which supplies energy for muscular contraction.

Also used as a supplement to increase athletic performance.

Advantages of creatine

Aims to provide ATP

replenishes phosphocreatine stores

allows ATP-PC system to last longer

improves muscle mass

Disadvantages of creatine

Possible side effects (muscle cramps, diarrhoea, water retention, bloating and vomiting).

Hinder aerobic performance

mixed evidence to show benefits

Sodium bicarbonate

A white soluble compound used as an antacid

Positive effects of sodium bicarbonate

Reduces acidity in the muscle cells

delays fatigue

increase buffering capacity of the blood

Negative effects of sodium bicarbonate

Side effects (voimitng, pain, cramping, diarrhoea and bloating)

Caffeine

Naturally occuring stimulant which increases alertness and reduces fatigue

Positive effects of caffeine

Stimulant increases mental rehearsal

reduces effect of fatigue

allows fats to be used as an energy source

delays use of glycogen stores

improves decision making (reaction time is improved)

may benefit aerobic performance.

Disadvantages of caffeine

Loss of fine control

against rules of most sports in large quantities

side effects (dehydration, insomnia, muscle cramps, stomach cramps and irregular heartbeat)

Glycogen loading

Used by endurance athletes to increase glycogen stores.

A dietary manipulation.

Advantages of glycogen loading

Delays fatigue

increases glycogen stores in muscles

increases endurance capacity

Disadvantages of glycogen loading

Carbo loading phase:

- water retention (bloating)

-heavy legs

-affects digestion

- Weight increase

during depletion phase:

-irritability

-can alter the training programme as there may be a lack of energy.

Warm up

Involves:

-pulse raining exercises (jogging)

-stretching

skill based movements

static passive stretch

when a stretch occurs with the help of an external force, such as a partner, gravity or a wall

static active stretch

involves the performer working on one joint, pushing it beyond its point of resistance, lengthening the muscles and connective tissue surrounding it

ballistic stretching

stretching using swinging, hopping and bouncing movements - it has a high injury risk

Cool down

-Involves exercises that maintain heart beat initially

-gradual reduction in heart rate and breathing rate

-stretching.

Benefits of warm up

Muscle temperature increases

reaction time gets faster

injury chances reduce

increased movement at the joints

movements are rehearsed

more oxygen to working muscles.

Benefits of a cool down

Removal of lactic acid

reduced chances of DOMS

maintains venous return

gradually reduces temperature.

Specificity

Make training specific to the sport being played/ movements used/ energy systems used.

Progressive overload

Gradual increase in the amount of overload so that fitness gains occur but without potential injury.

Reversibility

Losing fitness levels when you stop exercising

Recovery

Rest is required in appropriate amounts.

Principles of overload

To improve performance you need to train more, harder, longer and with the correct type of training.

FITT

Frequency: how often

Intensity: how hard

Time: how long for

Type: of training

Periodisation

Method of dividing the training year into specific sections for specific purposes

Macro cycle

Long term training goal

split up into periods

preparation phase

similar to pre season training where fitness is developed

competition phase

performance period where skills and techniques are refined an fitness is maintained

transition phase

end of a season where the rest and recovery take place and light aerobic activity may take place

Mesocycle

Usually lasts for a 4-12 week period of training with a particular focus

Microcycle

a week or a few days of training

Tapering

Reducing the frequency and/or intensity of training prior to competition

Peaking

Planning and organising training so a performer is at their peak, both physically and mentally, for a major competition.

Performers can aim to double peak

Acute injuries

Caused by a specific impact or traumatic event where a sharp pain is felt immediately.

Fractures

A break or crack in the bone

Dislocations

When the end of the bones are forces out of position, occurs only at joints

Strains

A pulled or torn muscle when muscle fibres are stretched too far and tear

Sprains

When excessive force is applied to a joint and the ligament stretches and tears. Occurs to ligaments and joints.

Chronic injuries

Often referred to as overuse injuries

Achilles tendonitis

When the Achilles tendon becomes inflamed, causing pain.

Stress fracture

The area becomes tender and swollen. This is most common in the weight-bearing bones of the legs.

Tennis elbow

Occurring in the muscles attached to the elbow that are used to straighten the wrist. When the muscle and tendons become inflamed and tiny tears occurs on the outside of the elbow.

Screening in preventing injury

Detects abnormalities or medical conditions (heart or musculoskeletal conditions)

-can detect problems before they occur and helps them select a relevant training programme to prevent injury

-not always accurate and can increase anxiety when performers realise they have health issues

Protective equipments in preventing injury

act as a physical barrier, absorbing or deflecting the forces that can cause injury to the body

Warm up in preventing injury

Flexibility training

Active, passive, static, and ballistic stretching

Taping/bracing

these can help a weak joint with support and stability to reduce the risk of injury - it can be used on a muscle to provide controlled support as the muscle contracts

Bracing

Knee and ankle braces

proprioceptive training (injury rehabilitation)

Uses hopping, jumping and balance exercises to restore lost proprioreception and teach the body to control the position of an injured joint subconsciously

Stretch training

To re strengthen the injured area

Hyperbaric chambers

Pressurised chambers that contain 100% pure oxygen so that more oxygen can be breathed in and therefore diffused to the injured area

Cryotherapy

The use of cold temperatures to treat an injury

Hydrotherapy

Takes place in warm water and is used to improve blood circulation, relieve pain and relax muscles

Compression garments (recovery from exercises)

Used to improve blood circulation and prevent medical problems such as deep vein thrombosis

Massage

Kneading and rubbing muscles to increase the blood flow to the injured area and to break down scar tissue whilst removing tension and lactic acid

Foam rollers

Act in the same way as massage

Cold therapy

Cooling the skin by applying ice to give pain relief and decrease blood flow to reduce any bleeding or swelling

Ice baths

Entering iced water for a few minutes. The cold causes blood vessels to the muscles to vasoconstrict and the body's core receives most blood. After leaving the ice bath the vessels vasodilator and oxygen rich blood flushes to the muscles or injured area.

Sleep and how it is good for injury rehabilitation

During sleep glycogen stores may be replenished from the food consumed and ingested protein helps with the muscle repair.

Newton’s first law

Every body continues in its state of rest of uniform in a straight line unless compelled to change that state by a large enough external force which overcomes in its inertia.

(Golf ball will remain on tee unless a force is applied by a golf club)

Newton’s second law

Force = mass x acceleration

if a large enough force is applied then an object will -accelerate in the direction of the force and -acceleration in proportion to amount of force applied

(when a player kicks the ball the acceleration of the ball is proportional to the size of the force, so the harder the ball is kicked, the further and faster it will go in the direction in which the force has been applied.)

Law of action (newtons third law)

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

(For example a swimmer provides the action force towards towards a wall when turning and receives back an equal and opposite reaction force to push off the wall.)

Scalar quantities

Refers to a measurements based on size only.

Speed (metres per second)

distance (metres)

Centre of mass

The point of balance of a body.

The point of concentration of mass

tends to be the middle of the body but does move depending on the position of the body.

Stability

How stable something is

Factors affecting stability

-Height of the centre of mass (lower the more stable)

-area of the base of the support (wider the more stable)

-position of the line of gravity (the more central the line extending vertically from the centre of mass and body mass the better the stability).

-mass of the performer (greater the mass, the greater the stability)

E.g. a rugby player with a large mass will aim to adopt a low position with a wide stance when scrummaging to maintain stability.

First class lever

The fulcrum lies between the effort and resistance. An example is during triceps extension

large range of movement and any resistance can be moved quickly. (AD)

cannot apply much force to move an object (DISAD)

Second class lever

The resistance is between the fulcrum and effort. The lever is used plantar flexion

Can generate much larger force and has to lift the whole body weight (AD)

slow with a limited range of movement (DISAD)

Third class lever

The effort is between the fulcrum, and the resistance. This is used during the upwards phase of a biceps curl or during leg flexion at the knee.

Same AD and DISAD as 1st class lever

Mechanical advantage

Refers to where the effort arm is longer than the resistance arm. This is highest at the second class lever, although it does have a limited range of movement.

Mechanical disadvantage

Where the resistance arm is longer than the effort arm. Can not apply much force to move an object.

Linear motion

Movement of the body in a straight line, where all body parts move the same distance, in the same direction over the same time.

Scalar quantities

Quantities that just have size (mass, speed and distance)

Vector quantities

Quantities that have size and direction

-weight, momentum, acceleration, displacement, velocity

Gravity

The force that attracts a body towards the centre of the earth or towards any other physical body having mass

Frictional force

-Static fictional force is the force exerted on one surface by another where there is no motion between the 2 surfaces.

- sliding fictional force is when dry friction acts between 2 surfaces that are moving relative to one another.

Air resistance

A force that acts in the opposite direction to the motion of a body moving through the air

Internal-muscular force

Force generated by the skeletal muscles

Weight

Mass x acceleration, measured in newtons (N)

Reaction force

The result of an action force

Mass

The quantity of matter the body possesses (bone, muscle, fat, tissue and fluid)

Speed

Distance / time, the rate of change over a distance

measured in (m/s -1)

Velocity

Measured in metres per second, the rate of displacement

Distance/displacement

Measured in metres

the shortest route in a straight line

Acceleration

Rate of change of velocity

Momentum

The product of the mass and velocity of an object