AICE Sociology Paper 2

Social Construction

'Youth' is socially constructed by society. Not the same experience everywhere and has not always existed. Historical evidence shows us how youth has changed over time. Cross cultural evidence demonstrates that youth has different meanings in different cultures.

Aries

Historical evidence: Aries argued that in the Middle Ages childhood did not exist and youth only emerged in the late 19th century.

Roberts

Youth culture grew up after WW2 in the 1950s. Changes in the economy, education and changes in social attitudes - equal opportunities brought about new ways of thinking about society. Young people were seen as a distinctive group. Own values about their place in society.

Mead

Anthropological evidence: Samoa youth is not a turbulent time, complete contrast to the experience of youth in contemporary UK society.

Rites of Passage

Some societies people move from childhood to adulthood after an initiation ceremony called a rite of passage as in Suri society.

Media

Young people use the media to understand and monitor how they 'perform' youth. Teen magazines and music videos aimed at the youth market convey the meaning of youth and the 'correct' and 'incorrect' styles and behaviours.

Consumption

'Youth market' has been targeted since the 1950s. Consumption of youth style included different media focused on different genders - style magazines for teenage girls, whereas sport, music and technology were aimed at boys. Active consumers and they use new technologies such as social networking to define their own social identities and relationships.

Featherstone

Argues that in postmodern society, consumption shapes identity and we use what we buy to make statements about who we are. Young people today are influenced by style, fashion and brands.

The Economy

Economic behaviour reinforces ideas about age distinctions children = no paid work, youth = part-time work

and adult = full time work.

Part-time work provides participation in the economy and spending power which enables them to create their youth identities though cultural products such as music, clothing and leisure.

Ritzer's McJobs

Youth work is generally low-paid, low-skill and low status

Boundaries

Age markers that enable us to determine where youth begins. For example, the age of criminal responsibility is 10 years old, the start of the teenage years is 13 and the school leaving age is now 18.

Setterson

Setterson - there are markers for where it ends. Rites of passage such as receiving the 'keys to the door' at 21, the end of teenage years at 20 and the end of formal education at 18 or 21 for university graduates.

Labelling

Youth can be seen as a labelling process which denotes a set of social and psychological characteristics through use of the term 'teenager.' 13th birthday and experience a change in status and identity. Some characteristics are positive such as privileges while others are negative, such as moodiness or rebellion.

Globalisation

Since the 1950s, the import of American cultural products, especially music, has influenced the development of British youth styles and subcultures. Transnational brands such as Nike, Coca-Cola and McDonalds have created products that are incorporated into youth styles.

Archer et al

Archer et al. Found that working class youth referred to their style as 'Nike' which was associated with street cred, hardness and the idea that university was not for 'people like them.'

Luke

Luke refers to the concept of 'hybridised world kids', suggesting that there is a globalised youth culture characterised by transnational brands and products.

Functionalism

Functionalism is a consensus, structuralist theory. The systems approach explains how modern industrial societies developed ways to manage the transition between the fixed cultures of childhood and adulthood.

Parsons

Parsons argues that youth culture provides a bridge between childhood and adulthood, like a rite of passage -a transitional stage.

Eisenstadt

Eisenstadt argues youth culture is an important way of binding young people into society. The break from the family is a stressful period and youth culture reduces tension by gradually enabling youth to turn from the family to the peer group.

Abrams

Abrams explains the creation of youth culture through increased spending power and a consumer economy.

Functionalism - Strengths

Youth culture provides norms, values and statuses which create a sense of belonging and a common purpose required to help young people negotiate the stresses and strains of a potentially difficult period. It resolves the problem of anomie and ensures that young people remain integrated, marked by rites of passage.

Functionalism - Weaknesses

• They see young people as a homogenous group. They do not acknowledge youth subcultures and ignore differences in class, gender and ethnicity (i.e. heterogeneity).

• They see youth as an age category rather than a state of mind.

Marxism

Marxism is a conflict structuralist theory.

Hegemony

This means how a ruling class exercises its control over the working class through cultural values such as the consumption of status symbols

Relative autonomy

The cultural position of youth as neither children nor adults enables them to resist being controlled by the ruling class.

Resistance

Groups in capitalist societies who display resistance to the dominant values of society according to Hall and Jefferson.

C.C.C.S

Argue economic and cultural factors such as high youth unemployment, riots, strikes and the loss of communities helped to explain why youth subcultures developed.

Hall and Jefferson

Researched Teddy Boys and found that they were drawn from groups who lost out in the education system.

Cohen

Studied skinhead culture and found that they wore an exaggerated form of traditional working class male clothing and exuded 'toughness.'

Clarke

Studied skinhead subculture and stated that part of the attraction of spectacular subcultures was their ability to shock.

Hebdige

Studied punks and found that they used bricolage, meaning the re-use of ordinary objects to provide new meanings.

Brake

Argued that these subcultures were seen as a magical solution but were actually merely an illusion.

C.C.C.S Strengths

Conflict theories such as Marxism were very influential in the 1970s. Key concepts such as hegemony have a strong academic tradition and are supported by empirical research.

The CCCS researchers have challenged the homogenous view of youth culture offered by Functionalists.

Willis

Neo Marxist - support for the significance of 'resistance' in researching the development of anti-school subcultures amongst working class boys. It is supported by Fuller

Fuller

Researched the experiences of African-Caribbean girls in schools who experienced oppression and institutional racism.

Sivanandan

Sivanandan states that black youth subcultures such as 'Rude Boys' formed in resistance to racism.

C.C.C.S Criticisms

Females and members of ethnic minorities were ignored.

Many youth did not join subcultures.

Muggleton, Thornton, Cohen

Muggleton

Muggleton argues that not all subcultures were working class and questions why advertisers would only target working class youth.

Thornton

Thornton argues that the CCCS did not consider the role played by the media in the construction of youth.

Cohen

Argues that youth subcultures are created by the media through labelling. So are they really subcultures at all?

Patriarchy

Patriarchy which is the view that males have more power than females in all areas of social life.

McRobbie and Garber

Challenge the 'invisibility' of girls from analyses of youth subcultures. Girls inhabit a different cultural space. bedroom culture based around codes of romance, fashion, personal lives and pop music. Involved makeup, gossiping and reading Jackie magazine. It created a cult of femininity. Links to Smart and Lincoln

Smart

Who argues that parents exercise more control over girls who have less freedom.

Lincoln

Lincoln updated the bedroom culture study. New technology plays a more important role now.

Hollands

Studied nightlife in Newcastle. Young women just as likely as men to enjoy nights out in the city centre and drinking excessively.

Blackman

Conducted an ethnographic study of different subcultural styles in a school. He called one group the 'New Wave Girls' who were popular, academic, interested in punk and new wave music, wore Doc Martin boots and resisted parental control.

Thornton

Studied the rave dance scene in the 1990s and found that although females were more likely to go clubbing than males they were given less status.

Shain

Shain looked at Asian girls who formed subcultures like the 'Gang Girls' in response to racism.

Feminism - Strengths

Like Marxism, Feminism is also a conflict theory, but the focus is on gender inequalities.

Reddington, Heidensohn, Pomerantz et al.

Reddington

Shows how females did play a big part in subcultures in the 1970s -e.g. punks such as Vivienne Westwood. This opposes research by Functionalists and Marxists.

Heidensohn

Opposes the male dominated world of 'malestream' sociology and supports Feminist research methods.

Pomerantz et al

Cross cultural evidence provides examples of female subcultures such as Riot Grrrl and SK8er girls who are a group of Canadian skateboarders researched by Pomerantz et al.

Feminism - Limitations

Feminist research is reductionist - it has a narrow focus on gender whilst neglecting issues around social class and ethnicity.

Research since the 1990s on youth movements such as house, rave and goth subcultures has included girls; although these subcultures are 'neutral' rather than 'spectacular.'

Postmodernists suggest the blurring of masculinity and femininity in recent research on youth styles which are 'genderless' and influenced by globalisation, which increases choice and diversity.

McRobbie and Garber - Limitations

McRobbie and Garber have been criticised for over stating the importance of the bedroom culture and a lack of empirical evidence. Not all girls have their bedrooms as private space.

Postmodern approach to youth culture

Youth cultures are connected, not isolated - globalisation and new technologies have enabled youth cultures to grow globally.

Youth cultures are individual, not collective - For Postmodernists, youth is about the conflict between individualism i.e. developing their own style and sense of self and becoming a member of a group in adulthood which means a loss of individual identity.

Redhead, Thornton, Maffesoli

Readhead

Club cultures are associated with the UK in the late 1980s and 1990s in which people shared a collective dance experience regardless of class, gender or ethnicity.

Thornton

Adopted the methodology of the CCCS and found that members of club cultures had subcultural capital which means knowledge of the latest music which provided them with status. Unlike the CCCS, she found that club cultures were not a form of resistance. The mass media in the form of 'pop' was rejected in favour of 'micro media' such as pirate radio and flyers. The media created a sense of moral panic through their reporting of the prevalence of recreational drugs.

Maffesoli

Argues youth culture is tribal. It is made up of loosely connected groups with a variety of identities based on their ever-changing lifestyles. They can be defined by people gathering around totems.

Bennett

Bennett adopted the concept neo tribes, which describes contemporary youth behaviours such as clubbing, which is comprised of ever changing styles and identities.

Postmodern - Strengths

Postmodernism emerged in the 1990s. It is pluralist which means that it offers a diverse range of ways of looking at society. It provides new questions and research methodologies. It acknowledges the powerful effect of the media in youth cultures.

Postmodernism is culturally relevant as globalisation and new technologies which have enabled youth cultures and styles to grow globally, whereas, subcultures such as punks grew locally or in isolation like goths.

Thornton and Bennett

Thornton

Thornton opposes neo tribes by Bennett and shows that subculture is still a useful concept as she found that youth behaviour still has some subcultural elements such as division in terms of status, power and identity. This supports the CCCS.

Postmodern Limitations

Postmodernists argue that postmodern youth identities transcend categories such as social class. However, consumption is still related to categories such as class, age, ethnicity and gender.

Livesey and Jones

Differences between 'old style' youth subcultures and 'nu-style' tribal culture are overstated, it is a difference in terminology which is not supported by evidence according to Livesey.

Jones (2011) found that 'chavs' are demonised for appropriating symbols of British upper class culture such as Burberry and 'bling.'

Hybrid Elements

According to Luke and Luke (2000) many youth subcultures have hybrid elements such as hippies co-opting military uniforms, dog tags and military symbols in the name of 'peace'. Skinheads adopted exaggerated forms of working class styles such as over boots, belts and braces.

Malone

Glocal Subcultures: Malone identifies recent forms of hybridity. Glocal involves global styles filtered through local subcultural groups (hence glocal). However, the meaning of this style is interpreted differently by youths in different countries, depending on their localities. Thus glocalised youth cultures are able to tap into a global community with a common understanding whilst simultaneously allowing styles such as hip-hop to be adapted to individual tastes.

Dispora

Dispora means patterns of dispersal. According to Gilroy (1987), all ethnic minority youth subcultures are a mix of their cultural origins and their present circumstances. They are flexible and open, taking elements from a range of influences.

Cashmore

Cashmore (1997) analysed 'gangsta rap.' He found that it began in the 1960s in Jamaica, and then became popular in black neighbourhoods in New York in the 1970s. By the 1980s, it had spread to LA and was finally promoted world-wide.

Luke

Identified 'hybridised world kids' - youngsters with a 'globalised' sense of youth who were connected physically through face-to-face interaction and virtually through social networking. They fashion a range of globalised styles into a range of unique hybrid identities.

Deviance

Rule/norm breaking behaviour of any kind

Crime

Breaking the law (legal rules). Crime is always deviant but not all deviance is criminal.

Delinquency

Anti-social behaviours of young people under the age of 18.

Age

Nacro - the peak age of offending in 2007 was 17 for males and 15 for females. Young people are also the most likely to be victims of crime.

Gender

ONS, during 2007, 74% of all young people convicted, warned or reprimanded were males. Although there is increased attention on the issue of girl gangs, there is currently no evidence to suggest that female crime is increasing at a faster rate than males.

Connell

Hegemonic masculinity as noted by Connell is still having an effect on rates of offending.

Ethnicity

Young black males have higher rates of offending than Asian or white youths. They account for 7% of those coming to the attention of the youth justice system, 14% of those receiving custodial sentences and 1 in 3 of those given a long term sentence according to Nacro

Social Class

There is no direct correlation between youth criminality and social class. However, the association between offending, poverty and social class is well established.

Cohen, Miller, Cloward and Ohlin, Lea and Young, Becker, C.C.C.S

Subculture and Gender

Subcultural theories are overwhelmingly about male offending e.g. Cohen, Miller, Cloward and Ohlin.

Collison

Argues that they all look at notions of masculinity which include physical toughness, taking risks, looking smart, maintaining 'face' among others and owning status objects. He argues that exploring the nature of masculinity is the key to understanding youth subcultures. This links to how boys are socialised by, parents, the education system and the media.

Masculinity and Crime

Messerschmidt

Applies an analysis of masculinities to an understanding of crime. White middle class youth construct masculinity in terms of economic and career success, whereas white working class youth construct masculinity in terms of aggression and hostility to inferior groups. Crime is a way of 'doing masculinity' in the absence of other resources.

Davies

Relates risk-taking behaviour such as street crime to masculinity. Moreover, young men have fewer family responsibilities which consequently provides them with more opportunities to commit crime. Lyng (2004) uses the concept of edgework in reference to risk taking behaviour in youth. Young males are more likely to indulge risky acts such as joy-riding.

Feminist subcultural explanations

Notions of femininity appear to be opposed to criminal and highly deviant behaviour according to Muncie.

McRobbie

Argues girls are confined to the private sphere of the home, whilst boys have more freedom. Even when females are involved in anti-social behaviour they are likely to be marginalised through the dominance of males.

Lower Female Criminality

According to the Home Office, women are consistently treated more leniently by the police, with female first offenders about half as likely to be given a prison sentence compared to males.

Chivalry Factors - Pollack

There is sexism on the part of the police and the courts. This means that female offenders are considered to be a less serious threat than men, especially for minor offences. They are therefore more likely to use sanctions such as cautions to females.

Eaton

Eaton found that women who do commit serious offences often got harsher sentences. For example, for violent crime, as it violates socially expected behaviour for females. Female offenders are more likely to be remanded in custody (put in prison) whilst awaiting trial for serious crimes. They are also less likely to be given community service. So those who are sentenced for serious crimes tend to get longer sentences than men for similar offences.

Growing female criminality

Eaton found that women who do commit serious offences often got harsher sentences. For example, for violent crime, as it violates socially expected behaviour for females. Female offenders are more likely to be remanded in custody (put in prison) whilst awaiting trial for serious crimes. They are also less likely to be given community service. So those who are sentenced for serious crimes tend to get longer sentences than men for similar offences.

Changes in gender socialisation: Chatterton and Holland's

Studied experiences of 'nights out' in Newcastle and found changing attitudes to women's behaviour. They are more likely to have a public social life frequenting pubs and clubs almost as often as young males. This could be linked to a masculine, ladette culture as researched by Jackson (2006).

Subcultural and strain theory: Merton

Strain between the goals of society (money/success) and the means of achieving them. He used anomie to describe the situation when it is difficult for people to achieve these goals so they turned to crime as a way of achieving these goals, using innovation.

Status frustration: A. Cohen

Status frustration which means a sense of personal failure. Working class boys experience failure at school so they develop subcultures and display anti-social behaviour as a way of gaining status.

Miller

Focal concerns

Anti-social behaviour was an extreme development of normal working class male values. He identified six focal concerns of masculinity which lead to delinquency: trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate and autonomy.

Illegitimate Opportunity Structure - Cloward and Ohlin

Support Merton's strain theory. However, they argue that there is a parallel set of illegitimate opportunity structures which means that a deviant or criminal career is an option though identification with three different subcultures i.e. criminal, conflict or retreatist.

Subterranean values - Matza

Everyone has some deviant values which we keep in check most of the time. All young people crave excitement called subterranean values which usually only emerge on holiday or on a night out! We justify this behaviour through techniques of neutralisation. However, persistent young offenders display these values more often.

Functionalist - Strengths

Merton's strain theory has had a significant impact on the writings of Cloward and Ohlin.

Research by Hobbs shows that there is a criminal career path for some people. This is also supported by the Interactionist, Becker.

Functionalist - Limitations

Fail to explain female criminality.

Merton has been criticised by Valier (2000) for his stress on the existence of 'common goals' in society. There are a variety of goals that people strive to achieve.

Theorists have questioned the three categories of criminal subcultures outlined in Cloward and Ohlin's theory.

There is no evidence to suggest that working class males identify with and internalise Albert Cohen's six focal concerns.

Box suggests that these values could just as easily apply to middle class males. Furthermore, he fails to prove that school is the focal agent for determining success or failure.

Matza - critical of subcultural theories and proposed the theory of subterranean values as a way of showing that society is based on shared values. He doesn't believe that there are distinctive groups with their own distinctive values.

Hegemony

This means how a ruling class exercises its control over the working class through cultural values such as the consumption of status symbols.

Relative Autonomy

The cultural position of youth as neither children nor adults enables them to resist being controlled by the ruling class.

Resistance

Groups in capitalist societies who display resistance to the dominant values of society according to Hall and Jefferson. Young people cause trouble because they are engaging in class conflict. Youth culture is an inarticulate means of dealing with the problems face by working class youths.

C.C.C.S

Economic and cultural factors such as high youth unemployment, riots, strikes and the loss of communities helped to explain why youth subcultures developed.

Cohen

Studied skinhead culture and found that they wore an exaggerated form of traditional working class male clothing and 'toughness.'

Clarke

Studied skinhead subculture and stated that part of the attraction of spectacular subcultures was their ability to shock.

Brake

Argued that these subcultures were seen as a magical solution but were actually merely an illusion.