ap pysch

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating)

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus/problem simultaneously

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a stimulus/problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as district from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active (sometimes called R sleep)

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

hypnagogic sensations

bizzare experiences, such a as jerking/feeling of falling/floating weightlessly while transitioning to sleep

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, SCN adjusts melatonin production thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

insomia

recurring problems in falling/staying asleep

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the affected person may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

REM sleep behavior disorder

a sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis doesn’t occur; instead, twitching/talking/kicking/punching may occur, often acting out one’s dream.

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

behavior

any observable action, response, or conduct exhibited by an individual

disorder

abnormal behavior: maladaptive actions or cognitive processes that defy social norms

hindbrain

consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

directs essential survival functions such as breathing, sleeping, wakefulness, and coordination/balance.

midbrain

found atop the brain stem:

connects hindbrain with forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory/visual information.

forebrain

consists of cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

manages complex activities, sensory/associative functions, and voluntary motor activities.

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.

medulla

the hindbrain structure that is the brain stem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the fore brain's sensory control center, located at the top of the brain stem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus.

it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.

cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning/memory.

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain, below the cerebral hemispheres (amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and pituitary gland); associated with emotions and drives.

amygdala

two lima-sized/bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.

hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward.

hippocampus

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts/events — for storage

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead. they enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher-order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans/judgements).

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; it includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. They also enable language processing.

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such a as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain causing changes in perceptions and mood.

substance use disorder

a disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption

depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.

withdrawl

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the drug/behavior.

addiction

everyday term for compulsive use despite harmful consequences

barbiturates

drugs that depress CNS activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory / judgement.

opiods

depress neural activity and temporarily lessening pain/anxiety.

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed body functions

hallucinogens

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions/evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

near-death experience

altered state of consciousness reported after close brush with death.

biological psychology

scientific study of links between biological (hormonal, genetic, neural) and psychological processes.

biopsychosocial approach

integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

levels of analysis

levels of analysis differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural for analyzing any given phenomenon.

neuroplasticity

brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or building new pathways based on experience.

lesion

tissue destruction

• brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease/trauma) or during surgery/experimentally (electrodes used to destroy brain cells)

EEG (electroencephalogram)

amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on scalp.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

brain-imaging techniques that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity.

CT (computed tomography) scan

series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure.

PET (position emission tomography) scan

technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while brain preforms tasks.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce images of soft tissue.

fMRI (functional MRI)

technique for revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electro-chemical, communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

nerves

bundled axons that form neuron cables, which are able to connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sensory organs.

sensory (afferent neurons)

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to the muscles and glands.

interneurons

neurons within the CNS; they communicate internally and also process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

somantic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

• also referred to as the skeletal nervous system

automatic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)

• its sympathetic division arouses, while its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, which mobilizes its energy.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, which conserves its energy.

reflex

a simple, automatic response to any sensory stimulus; such as the knee-jerk reflex.

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus, the cell’s life support center.

dendrite

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, which also conducts impulses towards the cell body.

axon

the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmantally encasing the axons of some neurons; it enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

threshold

the level of stimulation that is required to trigger a neural impulse.

refractory period

in neutral processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials can’t occur until the axon returns to its resting state.

all-or-none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with full strength response) or not firing.

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite (cell body) of the receiving neuron.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons.

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron.

endorphins

“morphine within” ; natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters that are linked to pain control and to pleasure.

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.

antagonist

a molecule that inhibits/blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.

endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands and fat tissue that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, where they travel through the bloodstream, and also affect other tissues.

nature-nurture issue

the long-standing controversy over the relative controversy over the relative contributions that genes/experience make to the development of psychological traits/behaviors.

• today’s science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits that enable survival/reproduction in certain environments for organisms will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

• in competition to other traits