Final Incarceration

Matheson et al. (2022): How are developmental disabilities linked to institutional outcomes in prison?

They are associated with longer sentences, more disciplinary charges, and greater difficulty adjusting to prison environments.

Matheson et al. (2022): Why are people with developmental disabilities overrepresented in prisons

Due to structural inequality, material deprivation, co-occurring health issues, and systemic barriers that increase justice system contact.

Matheson et al. (2022): What is a key policy implication regarding developmental disabilities in prison?

Implement screening for developmental disabilities and provide targeted accommodations/supports to improve institutional adjustment and reintegration outcomes.

Bixby, Bevan, & Boen (2022): Why are disabled individuals disproportionately incarcerated?

Because disability is linked to poverty, social exclusion, and institutional labeling of deviance.

Bixby, Bevan, & Boen (2022): How does intersectionality shape incarceration?

Disability interacts with race, gender, and class to produce unequal risks AND outcomes in incarceration.

Western, Simes, & Bradner (2022): What are the three main harms of incarceration?

Material deprivation, social isolation, and psychological distress

Western, Simes, & Bradner (2022): What mechanism most strongly explains psychological distress in solitary confinement?

Social isolation (disruption of supportive relationships)

Western, Simes, & Bradner (2022): What is meant by “total institution”?

A system that controls all aspects of life through bureaucratic organization, limiting autonomy.

Luigi et al. (2022): What is the relationship between solitary confinement and recidivism?

Solitary confinement is associated with increased recidivism, including higher rates of violent reoffending.

Luigi et al. (2022): Why does solitary confinement reduce rehabilitation?

It limits access to rehabilitative programs and causes psychological deterioration, which impairs individuals’ ability to engage in behavioral change and reintegration.

Luigi et al. (2022): What is institutionalization?

The process of adapting to prison conditions in ways that reduce independence and make reintegration into society more difficult.

Miranda (2024): What is a “data double”?

A digital representation of a person within surveillance systems, used to track, categorize, and govern individuals across institutions.

Miranda (2024): What is a surveillance assemblage?

A network of interconnected systems THAT SHARE and circulate data across institutions to monitor and govern individuals.

Miranda (2024): How has surveillance evolved beyond the panopticon?

It has shifted from centralized observation to a decentralized, networked system (surveillance assemblage) where data flows across multiple institutions AND ENABLES continuous monitoring beyond physical spaces.

Joseph et al. (2025): What is temporal torment?

Psychological harm caused by indefinite detention and uncertainty where the lack of a clear timeline produces ongoing stress, anxiety, and loss of control.

Joseph et al. (2025): What is denial of coevalness?

Treating individuals as stuck in the past, denying their capacity for change and justifying ongoing control or punishment.

Joseph et al. (2025): What is carceral violence?

Harm produced through systems of control (e.g., detention, surveillance) WITHOUT formal punishment, often through conditions like uncertainty, isolation, and lack of autonomy.

McKendy & Ricciardelli (2021): What are the five pains of imprisonment (Sykes)?

Loss of liberty, goods/services, autonomy, security, and meaningful relationships.

McKendy & Ricciardelli (2021): What is prisonization?

The process by which individuals adapt to and internalize the norms, values, and behaviors of prison culture, often shaping how they act and think during and after incarceration.

McKendy & Ricciardelli (2021): What trend is seen in modern prison culture?

A decline in collective solidarity among prisoners and a shift toward individualism (e.g., “do your own time”).

Haggerty & Bucerius (2021): What is discretion?

The ability of correctional officers to decide how and when to enforce rules, rather than applying them uniformly.

Haggerty & Bucerius (2021): What does “picking battles” mean?

Officers selectively enforce rules, choosing which violations to act on in order to maintain order, avoid escalation, and manage relationships with inmates.

Martinez (2025): What is STG classification?

A designation of Security Threat Group (gang) affiliation that affects an inmate’s housing, programming, and parole decisions.

Martinez (2025): Why is STG classification procedurally unjust?

It relies on unVERified or weak evidence AND provides limited opportunities for individuals to challenge or appeal the classification.

Martinez (2025): How does STG classification reflect structural racism?

It disproportionately labels racialized individuals—especially Black prisoners—as gang-affiliated, leading to harsher conditions and unequal treatment within the system.

Review Guide: What is the difference between systemic and individual explanations?

Systemic explanations focus on structural factors (e.g., policies, inequality, institutions) that SHAPE outcomes, while individual explanations focus on personal choices, traits, or behaviors.

Review Guide: What is the difference between correlation and causation?

Correlation is a relationship between variables, while causation MEANS one variable directly produces an effect on another (and requires ruling out confounding factors).

Review Guide: What are confounding variables?

Pre-existing factors that influence BOTH variables, creating a misleading association and making it difficult to determine true causation.

Review Guide: What is a dose-response relationship in incarceration?

The idea that greater exposure to harmful conditions (e.g., longer time in solitary confinement) leads to more severe negative outcomes.

Review Guide: What is the recency effect in segregation?

The increased risk of negative outcomes when individuals are released directly from segregation into the community, WITHOUT time to readjust.

Review Guide: Difference between desistance and recidivism?

Desistance refers to stopping or reducing criminal behavior over time, while recidivism refers to reoffending after involvement with the justice system.

How does temporal torment reflect carceral violence?

Temporal torment produces psychological harm through indefinite detention and uncertainty, making it a form of carceral violence because harm is inflicted WITHOUT formal punishment BUT through conditions of control.

How does solitary confinement affect both mental health and recidivism?

It causes psychological deterioration, which impairs self-control and reintegration, leading to increased recidivism.

What is continuity of care failure?

Breakdowns in support and treatment when individuals transition between systems (e.g., prison to community), leading to GAPS in care AND increased risk of negative outcomes.

What is misinterpretation of disability?

When behaviors caused by a disability are mistaken for noncompliance or misconduct, leading to inappropriate punishment instead of support.

What is permeability of systems?

The idea that institutions (like prisons) are not isolated, as information, surveillance, and control flow across multiple systems and spaces.

How does permeability relate to surveillance?

Permeability allows surveillance data to flow across systems, ENABLING continuous monitoring of individuals beyond a single institution.

What is actuarial justice?

refers to decision-making based on statistical predictions about risk rather than individual circumstances.

What is algorithmic governance?

The use of algorithms and data-driven systems to MAKE or GUIDE decisions about classification, risk, and control of individuals.

What is temporal + informational control?

The use of time (e.g., detention, uncertainty) and data/information (e.g., surveillance, records) to monitor, manage, and control individuals.

What is a strength-based model?

An approach that focuses on individuals’ abilities, potential, and capacity for change, rather than their risks or deficits.

What is a deficit model?

An approach that focuses on individuals’ risks, problems, and shortcomings, emphasizing what is lacking rather than their potential for change.

What is agency vs structure?

Agency refers to individuals’ ability to make choices and ACT, while structure refers to the social, economic, and institutional forces that shape or LIMIT those choices.

What is technological pragmatism?

The use of technological tools and data systems as practical solutions to manage and control populations

What is the abolition vs reform debate?

A debate about whether systems like prisons should be gradually improved (reform) or completely dismantled and replaced (abolition), based on the idea that reforms can make harmful systems appear more acceptable and allow them to expand

What are therapeutic communities (TC)?

Structured, group-based prison programs where individuals support each other’s rehabilitation, emphasizing accountability, social learning, and behavioral change.

How does Luigi et al. (2022) explain the relationship between solitary confinement and recidivism beyond simple correlation?

By showing causal mechanisms: solitary confinement harms mental health, reduces self-control, limits access to programming, and weakens social support—making individuals less prepared for release and more likely to reoffend

How do Western, Simes, & Bradner (2022) connect inactivity to psychological harm in prison?

Inactivity leads to boredom, disrupted sleep, and heightened stress, which interact with isolation and deprivation to produce psychological distress

What does Bixby, Bevan, & Boen (2022) mean by institutions being “disabling”?

Institutions (e.g., prisons, hospitals) create or worsen disability by limiting access to resources, imposing control, and reinforcing social exclusion

What role does the informal prison code play in shaping behavior according to McKendy & Ricciardelli (2021)?

It provides unwritten rules and shared norms that guide behavior, helping prisoners adapt to prison life, maintain order, and form social identity

What is the relationship between responsibilization and rehabilitation?

Rehabilitation is framed through responsibilization, where individuals are expected to fix their own behavior, SHIFTING attention away from structural causes of crime

How do structural barriers affect reintegration after incarceration?

Structural barriers (e.g., housing, employment, stigma, legal restrictions) limit access to opportunities, MAKING successful reintegration difficult and increasing the risk of recidivism

How do therapeutic communities (TCs) attempt to support rehabilitation?

By using peer support, group accountability, and structured routines to PROMOTE behavioral change and prosocial values.

How does the carceral continuum explain connections between institutions?

It shows that different institutions (e.g., prisons, hospitals, schools) are interconnected through shared logics of surveillance, control, and punishment, RATHER than operating separately

How does postcolonial theory help explain incarceration patterns?

It shows how colonial power relations and racial hierarchies persist, leading to the overrepresentation and CONTINUED control of marginalized groups within carceral systems

What is othering?

The process of defining certain groups as different, inferior, or OUTSIDE the norm, often to justify their marginalization or control.

What is risk society?

A society where decision-making is focused on managing and predicting risk, often using statistical tools and surveillance systems

What is surveillance expansion?

The spread of surveillance practices beyond prisons into everyday life and community settings

What is procedural injustice?

A lack of fairness in decision-making processes, including reliance on weak evidence, lack of transparency, and limited ability to challenge decisions

What is structural racism (in incarceration)?

Systemic patterns of inequality where laws, policies, and institutional practices disproportionately target AND disadvantage racialized groups in the justice system

What are policy implications?

The practical consequences or recommendations for laws, programs, or decisions that follow from research findings or evidence.

What is psychological deterioration (in incarceration)?

The decline in mental health due to prison conditions, including anxiety, depression, impaired thinking, and reduced self-control

What is structural inequality?

Structural inequality refers to social systems and institutions that produce unequal outcomes for different racial, social, or economic groups.

How does structural inequality affect citizens vs non-citizens?

Non-citizens face greater surveillance, fewer legal protections, and increased risk of detention or deportation, while citizens retain more rights and protections within the system