End of Semester Key Terms

Industrial Revolution

18th century transition from simple hand and water powered tools used in a home setting to complex steam powered factories, employing wage laborers in an urban setting

The Crystal Palace Exhibit

An exhibition hall built specifically for the Great Exhibition in 1851 London. Showcasing England's technological advancements during the Industrial Revolution, built entirely out of steel and glass

Friedrich List

German writer who advocated a rapid and large-scale program of industrialization as the surest path to develop a nation's strength. Felt that a nation must use protective tariffs to assure that path to industrialization

Bessemer Process

: The process of producing steel by blowing air through molten pig iron and removing impurities. Created by Henry Bessemer. Buildings lasted longer and were not as expensive to build. Cut the cost of steel by 2/3.

Factory Act of 1833

: Movement in Great Britain that outlawed the employment of children under the age of nine in textile mills; also limited the work days for those aged nine to thirteen to nine hours a day, and teenagers to twelve hours a day

Mines Act of 1842

A law that prohibited all underground work for women, and children under the age of ten.

Ten Hours Act 1847

United Kingdom Act of Parliament which restricted the working hours of women and young persons (13-18) in textile mills to 10 hours per day

Spinning Jenny

: A multi-spindle frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in England

Steam Engine

A machine that turns the energy released by burning fuel into motion. Thomas Newcomen and Thomas Savery built the first one, but they were inefficient. James Watt vastly improved this invention

David Ricardo

Proponent of the iron law of wages is a proposed law of economics that asserts that real wages always tend, in the long run, toward the minimum wage necessary to sustain the life of the worker

Luddites

a member of any of the bands of English workers who destroyed machinery, especially in cotton and woolen mills, that they believed was threatening their jobs (1811–16)

Second Industrial Revolution

This term refers to the second wave of the late 18th century industrial movement which was generally focused in the United States and Germany. This second wave, with the movement from domestic systems of production to factory systems, involved heavy industry and innovations such as mass production

Jeremy Bentham

: British theorist and philosopher who proposed utilitarianism, the principle that governments should operate on the basis of utility, or the greatest good for the greatest number.

Louis Pasteur

French chemist and biologist whose discovery that fermentation is caused by microorganisms resulted in the process of pasteurization.

Laissez-Faire

: An economic policy that emerged during the late 18th century that focuses on the belief that the state should not interrupt the natural economic forces, especially supply and demand

Socialism

An ideology that emerged during the first half of the nineteenth century that focuses on the introduction of equality into social conditions and the belief that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early industrial capitalism.

Utopian Socialists

Opponents of private property and the competitive spirit of the early industrial capitalism and believed that humanity could be improved by eliminating these capitalist ideas and creating new systems of social organization

Reform Act of 1832

: A bill passed by the British Parliament in 1832 that lowered the restrictions on the qualifications to vote and disenfranchised the rotten boroughs, doubling the number of people that could vote. Although this bill didn’t grant total representation, it marks a milestone in the progression of liberal ideas in Europe.

Irish Potato Famine

: was a period of starvation and disease lasting from 1845 to 1852 that constituted a historical social crisis and subsequently had a major impact on the country’s society and history as a whole

Zollverien

: German Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories and formally started on 1 January 1834.

Anti-corn law league

: a successful political movement in Great Britain aimed at the abolition of the unpopular laws, which protected landowners’ interests by levying taxes on imported wheat, thus raising the price of bread at a time when factory-owners were trying to cut wages

Flora Tristan

a French-Peruvian writer and socialist activist. She made important contributions to early feminist theory, and argued that the progress of women's rights was directly related with the progress of the working class.

Chartists

: a working class movement which emerged in 1836 in London. It expanded rapidly across the country and was most active between 1838 and 1848. Its aim was to gain political rights and influence for the working classes.The movement got its name from the People’s Charter

Labor Party

was founded in Britain in response to the perceived failure of the Liberal Party to address the concerns of the working class. It sought to provide a political voice for workers and the broader labor movement, including calls for better working conditions, universal suffrage, and a reduction in the power of the aristocracy.

Social Democratic Party

founded in 1875 in Germany, was the first major socialist party. It emphasized social democracy, democratic socialism, and progressive policies, including a strong social welfare state, workers' rights, and equality. The party was formed through the merger of several Marxist and labor parties and sought to advance the interests of the working class through political means

Nationalism

: A political, social, and economic ideology and movement characterized by the promotion of the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining sovereignty over the homeland

Liberalism

: An ideology that emerged during the French Revolution, liberalism centered around the protection of civil liberties and the basic rights of all people, religious toleration for all, the right of peaceful opposition to the government, and the creation of representative governments.

Revolutions of 1848

A series of liberal and nationalist revolts against many European monarchies seeking to gain greater rights, representation, and working conditions. The rebellions all ended in failure and repression, and were followed by widespread disillusionment among liberals.

Romanticism

: A movement in literature, art, and music during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that celebrated nature rather than civilization. Key characteristics were sentiment, individualism, the Middle Ages, and attraction to the bizarre

Reform Act of 1832

A bill passed by the British Parliament in 1832 that lowered the restrictions on the qualifications to vote and disenfranchised the rotten boroughs, doubling the number of people that could vote. Although this bill didn’t grant total representation, it marks a milestone in the progression of liberal ideas in Europe

J.M.W. Turner

A prominent English romantic artists whose works mainly addressed the encroachment of industrialization upon nature. His work utilized a interplay of light and color to suggest natural effects and is considered one of the first impressionist printers.

Ludwig van Beethoven

: A prominent German musician, his works embodied romantic ideas and elements by using uncontrolled rhythms to create dramatic struggle and uplifted resolutions that arouse fear, horror, and the longing for the eternal.

Otto Von Bismarck

Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 until 1871, when he became chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the unification of the German Empire. Though a conservative, he enacted many social reforms.

Count Camillo Benso of Cavour

: An Italian statesman and a leading figure in the push for Italian unification. Became prime minister of Italy with the help of Victor Emanuel II. In office from 23 March 1861 – 6 June 1861.

Realpolitik

a system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations.

Three Emperors League

This was an alliance started by Bismarck, between Germany, Austria, and Russia. Conflicting interests between Austria and Russia during the Russo-Turkish war and the resulting Congress of Berlin caused it to fall apart. Soon, Russia sought Germany for an alliance again, and it was rekindled in 1881.

Triple Alliance

An alliance in 1882 that consisted of Germany Austria and Italy. This Alliance was made in an attempt to isolate France from gaining any allies and nulling their threat.

Louis Napoleon III

He was elected president after Louis Phillip reign, and his era was known as the Second Republic until he named himself emperor during the 2nd Empire of France and best known for his reconstruction of Paris. His surrender to Otto von Bismarck in 1870 ended his reign.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

An Italian radical and military leader who emerged as a powerful independent force in Italian politics. He planned to liberate the Two Kingdoms of Sicily with the help of Cavour.

Karl Marx

German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary who wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867-1894) with the help of Friedrich Engels. These works explain historical development in terms of the interaction of contradictory economic forces, include the idea that history is a story of class struggle, and ultimately form the basis of all communist theory.

Kulturekampf

Refers to the German policies aimed at reducing the power of the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia, enacted from 1871-1879 by chancellor Otto Von Bismarck.

Charles Darwin

English biologist, naturalist and geologist who introduced the ideas of natural selection and evolution; argued that specific behaviors evolved because they led to advantages in survival or reproduction.

Red Shirts

: Group of Italian volunteers started by Giuseppe Garibaldi. They fought in the Italian Unification War and are most famous for their siege of Rome. They were also proud Italian Nationalist and had very liberal ideas.

Friedrich Nietzsche

A German Philosopher, he declared that Europeans must recognize that God is dead if they are to renew western society. He is also popular for his idea of Ubermensch which would later influence the ideology of fascist parties within Germany.

Crimean War

was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between the Russian Empire and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom, and Sardinia-Piedmont. This was one of the first instances to show an upset to the Concert of Europe.

Social Darwinism

A societal application of the theory of evolution, it followed the idea of the survival of the fittest. Proponents of this ideology believed that weak cultures would die out and that stronger cultures would grow in power and influence.

Naturalism

A style and theory of representation based on accurate depiction of detail.

Impressionism

A movement originating in 1870, it is characterized by a concern with depicting the visual impression of the moment, especially in terms of the shifting effect of light and color. Many paintings focused on nature as well as cities.

Economic Imperialism

A term for the domination of the world’s economic activity by European financial systems due to massive investments and the growth of domestic industries in foreign countries. Following the European expansion into Africa, this became the primary medium for European expansion of influence.

Scramble for Africa

Occurred during 1881-1914, this term defines the European occupation division, and conquest of African territories. This series of events started the so called era of new imperialism in which European countries began to once again expand colonial power.

Berlin Conference

: Occurring 1884-1885, this convention of Europe’s main colonial powers divided up Africa and regulated commerce. The outcome of this convention led to a period of renewed colonial activity for the European powers as almost all African nations became subjected to a European power.

New Imperialism

: A term that refers to the sense of heightened colonialism by the European powers in the 1880s. This renewed sense of colonialism was the primary factor in the colonization of Africa and new pacific territories.

Franco-Prussian War

: Also known as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation. Ultimately it led to the end of the 2nd French Empire and ultimately the unification of the German Empire.

King Leopold II

King of the Belgians from 1865 to 1909, and the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908. It was under his reign that the brutality of the treatment of the Congolese people was brought to light in Europe.

Boxer Rebellion

was an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist, and anti-Christian uprising in North China between 1899 and 1901. It was a reaction against European imperialist efforts in China.

Gunboat Diplomacy

: the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare should terms not be agreeable to the superior force.

White Man's Burden

: a duty formerly asserted by white people to manage the affairs of nonwhite people whom they believed to be less developed. This was a justification used by Europeans during the Age of Imperialism

Conscription

The compulsory enlistment of people within a national service, mostly the military. This was used widely during ww1 in order to increase army size and replenish losses

Mobilization

The action of a country or its government preparing and organizing troops for active service

Black Hand

- Formed in 1901 within Serbia, it was a secret military society formed with the desire to unite all southern Slavic territories under Serbia. The organization is most notable for their assassination of Fran’s Ferdinand in 1914

Schlieffen Plan

The name for the German war plan for the invasion of France during World War One. The plan called for the invasion of Belgium and a sweep around into northern France, however it also drew the ire of Britain and forced them into the war. The plan was eventually ended by the halt of the German advance at the Battle of the Marne.

Trench Warfare

The term for the form of warfare that occurred on the western front during World War One. This form of warfare consisted of vast lines of fortifications on both sides and large death tolls as soldiers charged across the battlefield in an attempt to take over the enemy fortifications.

Nationalization

- The term for the transfer of a major branch of industry or commerce from private to state ownership or control. It was used often during World War One in order to manage the economy for the war effort and to prioritize certain industries and products.

Total War

Warfare that includes any and all civilian-associated resources and infrastructure as legitimate military targets, mobilizes all of the resources of society to fight the war, and gives priority to warfare over non-combatant needs

February Revolution

- it was an uprising of various revolutionary groups against the monarchy in Russia in the imperial capital of Petrograd. The victory of the rebels here led to the abdication of the Russian Tsar.

Bolsheviks

One of and the most important communist faction within Russia, they were the primary party leading the rebellion against the monarchy and upon the abdication of the tsar, became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and gained control over the country.

Vladimir Lenin

- Russian revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 to 1924 and of the Soviet Union from 1922 to 1924. He is credited with inspiring the communist revolutions within Russia and their subsequent victory against both the tsar and the whites during the civil war

Leon Trotsky

Russian revolutionary and politician, he is widely known for the creation of his communist ideology that promoted a worldwide communist revolution through military intervention and complete political control. He was eventually forced into exile once Joseph Stalin came to power

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Signed in 1918, this treaty marked the end of fighting on the eastern front as the newly established Soviet Russia ceded the territories of the Baltic states, Belorussia, and Ukraine to Germany to be turned into puppet states. This was done in order to fulfill the communist promises of peace, land, and bread

Self-determination

Made prominent by Woodrow Wilson in his 14 points, this ideology promoted the creation of sovereign states based upon nationalities which led to the creation of a Polish state, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and the cession of Transylvania to Romania

Treaty of Versailles

- The treaty that ended World War One in 1918. The treaty process was dominated by the British and the French who decided to enact harsh policies against Germany such as the demilitarization of the Rhineland, war reparations totaling 10 billion, and most controversially, the War Guilt clause. This treaty would become the focus of many fascist groups with Germany and would eventually aid Adolf Hitler in his rise to power

Keynesian economics

economic theory based on the ideas of British economist John Maynard Keynes. It is important because according to it, government can spend their economies out of a depression by using deficit spending to encourage employment and stimulate growth.

Great Depression

-was the economic crisis and period of low business activity in the U.S. and other countries. It is important because of its effect on economic activity across the globe. Including Europe as it worked to recover from WWI

Collectivization

tactic utilized by Joseph Stalin that consisted of combining private farms to government control and having mass production of food to combat the famines and create agricultural exports. However, this only created more famines as the Soviet Union was not prepared technologically for mass farming and most exports went to the soldiers fighting in WWII once the war broke out

Gulags

system of Soviet labor camps and accompanying detention and transit camps and prisons that from the 1920s to the mid-1950s housed the political prisoners and criminals of the Soviet Union

Joseph Stalin

was a Soviet revolutionary and politician who was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953. He held power as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union

Benito Mussilini

was an Italian dictator who founded and led the National Fascist Party (PNF). He was Prime Minister of Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 until his deposition in 1943

Totalitarianism

- is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition political parties, outlaws and disregards the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and so controls the public sphere and the private sphere of society.

Fascism

- is a far-right, authoritarian, ultranationalist political ideology and movement,characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hierarchy, subordination of individual interests for the perceived good of the nation or race, and strong regimentation of society and the economy.

Nuremberg Laws

- were antisemitic and racist laws that were enacted in Nazi Germany.The laws forbade marriages and extramarital intercourse between Jews and Germans and declared that only those of German or related blood were eligible to be Reich citizens

Holocaust

the genocide of European Jews during World War II. Between 1941 and 1945, Nazi Germany and its collaborators systematically murdered some six million Jews across German-occupied Europe, around two-thirds of Europe's Jewish population

Appeasement

is a diplomatic policy of making political, material, or territorial concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict. Characteristic of Britain's approach to Hitler in the lead up to World War I

Marshall Plan

This recovery program was implemented as a way to combat communism and soviet expansion in Europe by providing economic assistance to European countries to help them develop and rebuild following the destruction of World War Two

Comecon

was an organization established in January 1949 to facilitate and coordinate the economic development of the eastern European countries belonging to the Soviet bloc

Brezhnev Doctrine

A Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed that any threat to "socialist rule" in any state of the Soviet Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to all of them, and therefore, it justified the intervention of fellow socialist states.

Welfare State

A system whereby the government undertakes to protect the health and well-being of its citizens, especially those in financial or social need, by means of grants, pensions, and other benefits. This system grew popular in Western Europe and emerged as an aspect of socialism. It was the center of domestic debates during the late 1900s due to its costs and mounting economic trouble

Prague Spring

A period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia in 1968 in which the government tried to lessen central planning and other communist ideals. This attempt resulted in the Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact members invading the country to suppress the reforms, which they successfully did.

Hungarian Revolt

Occuring In 1956, this uprising was a nationwide revolt against the communist government and soviet-imposed policies and lasted for a little over a month. This was the first rebellion that posed a threat to soviet control and as a result was put down with extreme force

Fall of the Berlin Wall

Occuring In 1989, this event was a sign of the collapse of the soviet bloc and its influence in Eastern Europe. With the fall, the way was paved for the reunification of the once divided Germany.

Polish Elections of 1989

This election was the first real “free election” since 1928 and the first since the communist party abandoned its monopoly on power in the country. The rise and emergence of the solidarity party paved the way for the fall of communism in the country and the further collapse of the soviet bloc

Truman Doctrine

This doctrine was the culmination of the American Foreign Policy which focused on countering soviet geopolitical expansion. The doctrine first saw use when the United States provided aid to Greece and Turkey.

Containment

The American foreign policy following World War Two which focused on limiting the influence of the Soviet Union to only the areas it currently was present.

Mutual Deterrence

The belief that an arsenal of nuclear weapons prevented war by assuring that if one nation launched its nuclear weapons in a preemptive strike, the other nation would still be able to respond and devastate the attacker

NATO

Formed in 1949, this alliance containing many western and anti-communist nations was created in order to directly counter soviet expansion and influence within Europe. The members of this organization agreed to provide mutual assistance if any one of them was attacked.

Decolonization

: Following World War Two, many European colonial powers could no longer afford to maintain their empires as financial struggles and independence movements emerged. As such, nations underwent a process in which they released their colonial powers through a series of acts and proclamations from 1945-1970s

Perestroika

Implemented by Soviet Premier Gorbachev, this policy reordered Soviet economic policy from a planned economy to a market economy with limited free enterprise and private property rights in the hopes of saving the Soviet Union. However, this reform failed to stabilize the already collapsing Soviet Union

Glasnost

One of the most important instruments of the Soviet restructuring program under Gorbachev, this policy allowed and encouraged citizens and officials to openly discuss the strengths and weaknesses and for the first time the state newspaper began to print articles on corruption and protests against the government.

Nikita Khrushchev

: Premier of the Soviet Union from 1958-1964, he is most notable for ending the system of forced labor camps,de-stalinization, and his crushing of rebellions in Eastern Europe. Despite his reforms, he was disliked by his colleagues due to his non-endearing personality and attempts to curb their power

Mikhail Gorbachev

The 8th and last Premier of the Soviet Union, he is most notable for his implementation of limited western inspired reforms in order to try and save the Soviet Union. However, his efforts failed and as a result he would be the last premier of the Soviet Union as it collapsed

Iron Curtain

This term, first used by Winston Churchill, is representative of the distinct split between Western and Eastern Europe that lasted from the end of World War Two till the end of the Cold War. The term symbolizes the efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and its satellite states from open contact with the West.