Civil Rights, Discrimination, and Equality: U.S. Legal History and Key Cases

What is the concept of equality in the context of civil rights?

Equality is the least accepted American value, often construed narrowly as equality of opportunity.

What is discrimination?

Irrational suspicion or hatred of people, and differential treatment based on race, religion, sex, skin color, ethnic background, national origin, or sexual orientation.

When did slavery begin in the United States?

1619, and it did not end until 1865.

What was the public opinion on school segregation in 1940?

30% of Americans believed that white and black children should attend the same schools.

What was the NAACP's role in the fight against segregation in schools?

The NAACP's legal defense and education fund, led by Thurgood Marshall, brought suits against states to challenge segregation.

What was the significance of Plessy v. Ferguson?

It established the 'separate but equal' doctrine, allowing racial segregation in public services.

What was the outcome of Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada (1938)?

The Supreme Court ruled that a scholarship to an out-of-state school was not a substitute for admission to the state's law school.

What did the Supreme Court rule in Sipuel v. University of Oklahoma Regents (1948)?

The Court ruled that Ada Sipuel must be admitted to the University of Oklahoma law school, as her race should not be a barrier.

What was the ruling in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)?

The Supreme Court ruled that separating McLaurin from other students violated the equal protection clause.

What was the outcome of Sweatt v. Painter (1950)?

The Supreme Court ruled that Heman Sweatt had to be admitted to the UT law school, as the separate school was inferior.

What did the Supreme Court decide in Brown v. Board of Education (1954)?

The Court ruled that 'separate but equal' can never be equal, effectively ending legal segregation in schools.

What was the impact of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 on school segregation?

It cut off federal aid to school districts still practicing segregation.

What is voter suppression?

Efforts to make it difficult for voters, especially black Americans, to register and vote.

What were poll taxes, and when were they abolished?

Poll taxes were fees required to vote, abolished in federal elections by Congress in 1964 and for state elections by the Supreme Court in 1966.

What was the significance of the Voting Rights Act of 1965?

It suspended literacy tests, sent federal registrars to register voters, and monitored elections to ensure fair voting practices.

What was the outcome of Shelby County v. Holder (2013)?

The Supreme Court declared section 4(b) of the Voting Rights Act unconstitutional, nullifying preclearance requirements.

What was the public response to the Brown v. Board of Education ruling?

There was massive resistance, including efforts to shut down public schools to prevent integration.

What did the Selma to Montgomery march contribute to?

It was a key factor in President Johnson's push for the Voting Rights Act.

What was the legal question in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson?

Does the situation in this lawsuit provide for equality as well as separation?

What did the Supreme Court rule regarding the separate law school created for Heman Sweatt?

The Court ruled that the separate law school was inferior and Sweatt had to be admitted to the UT law school.

What was the cultural divide regarding school segregation in the 1940s?

70% of Americans wanted to continue the use of segregated schools.

What was the significance of the 1964 Civil Rights Act?

It aimed to eliminate discrimination and segregation in various public domains, including schools.

Who was Thurgood Marshall?

The first black person appointed to the Supreme Court and a key figure in the fight against segregation.

What was the condition of schools for black children compared to white children in the 1950s?

Schools for black children received significantly less funding and resources.

What was the outcome of the case Smith v. Allwright (1944)?

The Supreme Court ruled that the Texas law allowing the Democratic Party to decide who could vote in its primaries was unconstitutional.

What did the Supreme Court rule regarding the formula used to identify jurisdictions with voter discrimination?

The formula was outdated and violated state sovereignty.

What significant voting law did Texas Governor Abbott sign in September 2021?

A law banning overnight early voting hours and drive-thru voting.

What does the Texas voting law allow regarding partisan poll watchers?

It gives them free movement within polling places.

What is prohibited for local election officials under the new Texas voting law?

Proactively distributing applications for mail-in ballots.

What did Jim Crow laws create in American society?

Segregated societies, including shopping districts, hospitals, and restaurants.

Which amendment's equal protection clause could not be applied to public accommodations?

The Fourteenth Amendment.

What does Title II of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibit?

Discrimination against any customer in a place of public accommodation based on race, color, religion, or national origin.

What was the Supreme Court's decision in Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States?

Congress did not overstep its bounds in regulating commerce; the hotel was located along interstate highways.

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 accomplish?

It ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

What significant housing legislation was passed in 1968?

The Civil Rights Act of 1968 made it illegal to discriminate in housing based on race, religion, color, or national origin.

What did the Supreme Court rule regarding racially restrictive covenants in 1948?

They were struck down as unconstitutional.

What is 'steering' in the context of housing discrimination?

Realtors showing black clients houses primarily in black neighborhoods.

What is the definition of feminism according to Merriam-Webster?

The theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes.

What legal principle rendered women legally inferior from colonial times to about 1900?

The English common law principle that 'the husband and the wife are one, and that one is the husband.'

What was the first women's rights convention, and when did it occur?

The Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.

What did women seek at the Seneca Falls Convention?

The right to vote, educational opportunities, and relief from heavy family responsibilities.

What was the outcome of the 15th Amendment for women?

Women were excluded from its provisions.

What landmark ruling did the Supreme Court make in Reed v. Reed in 1971?

It held that sex discrimination violates the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Who was the first woman to run for presidential nomination from a major party?

Shirley Chisholm in 1972.

Who was the first woman vice presidential nominee of a major party?

Geraldine Ferraro in 1984.

Who was the first woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court?

Sandra Day O'Connor, appointed in 1981.

What is the significance of the Equal Pay Act of 1963?

It mandates equal pay for equal work regardless of gender.

What does Title IX of the Education Act Amendments of 1972 address?

It prohibits sex-based discrimination in federally funded education programs.

What does the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974 prohibit?

Denial of credit based on sex.

What was the proposed but not ratified amendment aimed at ensuring equal rights?

The Equal Rights Amendment.

Who are the six women that have served on the U.S. Supreme Court?

Sandra Day O'Connor, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Sonia Sotomayor, Elena Kagan, Amy Coney Barrett, and Ketanji Brown Jackson.

What is the projected Latino population in the U.S. by 2024?

Over 58.8 million.

When did the Census Bureau first use the term 'Hispanic'?

In 1970

What do the terms 'Hispanic' and 'Latino' refer to?

A person's origin, not their race or ethnicity.

What regions do Hispanics originate from?

Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and countries in Central and South America settled by Spain.

How does the Pew Research Center count Hispanics?

By including those who self-identify as Hispanic.

What was the significant change in the 2020 Census regarding race questions?

It allowed for written responses to all race categories.

What organization expresses the political influence of Latinos?

The League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC).

What was the ruling in Hernandez v. Texas (1954)?

Excluding Hispanics from juries violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

What did Katzenbach v. Martin (1966) confirm about the Voting Rights Act?

Congress had not overstepped its powers in passing Section 4e.

What did the Voting Rights Act of 1965, Section 4e, provide?

It allowed non-English speakers to vote if they had received a basic education.

What was the ruling in San Antonio ISD v. Rodriguez (1973)?

Texas' funding strategy for public schools did not violate the Equal Protection Clause.

What was the Supreme Court ruling in Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)?

The right to marry extends to same-sex couples.

What was the significance of Bostock v. Clayton County, GA (2020)?

It ruled that the 1964 Civil Rights Act protects employees from discrimination based on sexual orientation.

What law was enacted in 1990 to protect persons with disabilities?

The Americans with Disabilities Act.

When were Native Americans granted U.S. citizenship?

On June 2, 1924, through the Indian Citizenship Act.

What was the ruling in Choctaw Nation v. Leavitt (1969)?

The U.S. granted Indian nations rights to the riverbed of the Arkansas River.

What did Williams v. Lee (1979) establish regarding state jurisdiction?

State courts do not have jurisdiction over affairs on Indian reservations unless allowed by Congress or state legislatures.

What was the outcome of California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians (1986)?

State laws require congressional consent to apply to Indian reservations.

What was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882?

It prohibited Chinese individuals from entering the United States.

What was the ruling in Ozawa v. United States (1922)?

Asian and Pacific Islanders were not considered white and thus not entitled to full citizenship rights.

What did the McCarran-Walter Act of 1952 accomplish?

It granted citizenship to Asian immigrants.

What was the Supreme Court's decision in Korematsu v. United States (1944)?

It upheld the internment of Japanese Americans during WWII as legal.

What did the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 do?

It apologized for the internment of Japanese Americans and provided reparations.

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