IGCSE history - Superpowers

When was the U2 spy plane incident?

May 1 1960

How did the U2 spy plane incident effect the Paris Summit Meeting? (and when were they?)

The Paris Summit Meeting was held in May 1960. Eisenhower refused to apologise to Khrushchev, so Khrushchev walked out with no agreements being made (about the 'Berlin issue')

What was the refugee problem in Berlin and why was it so significant for Khrushchev?

West Germany = Marshall Aid = high standard of living

East Germany = no economic aid + poor economic policies = low standard of living

Lots of people were leaving to the West. - > many were skilled workers who were needed to improve the East German economy.

How many people migrated from East Germany to West Germany by 1958?

3 million (1/6 of the East German population)

What was the Berlin Ultimatum?

It was in 1958 and Khrushchev demanded:

- Berlin should be demilitarised + western troops withdraw

- Berlin should become a free city

He told the West to leave Berlin within six months or else he'd hand control over all routes into Berlin to the East Germany government.

Impact of Berlin Ultimatum

International relations: the West was angered by Khru's demands + saw it as extending communism

Led to the Summit meeting to solve the 'Berlin Problem'

When were each summit meeting (+ key features)?

Geneva = May 1959 (both side made proposal on how Berlin should be governed. no agreement made)

Camp David = September 1959 (Eisenhower + Khrushchev meet face-to-face for the first time. Berlin Ultimatum withdrawn)

Paris = May 1960 (U2 incident - Khrushchev walks out)

Vienna = June 1961 (Berlin Ultimatum renewed. Kennedy = new president)

Events leading up to building of Berlin Wall (when?)

August 1961

tensions has increased due to talks between East and West

more refugees were fleeing

40,000 East Germans in one day in August

When was the Berlin Wall built?

Night of the 12th August 1961 -> troops put up barbed wire

After this, work began on the concrete wall.

Effects of Berlin Wall on Berlin?

Wall cut through streets and buildings

Families and friends separated

People who worked on other side of the wall lost their jobs

Those attempting to cross wall were shot

Effects of Berlin Wall on relations between East and West Germany

Initially = outrage in West Germany + relations worsened

However, stopped refugee problem, improving relations (the problem had strained relations since 1945)

negative outcomes of Berlin Wall on Soviet Union

- Khrush had to abandon plans to reunite Germany under Soviet control

- Wall showed the USSR had to 'lock' people into East Germany

positive outcomes of Berlin Wall on Soviet Union

- stopped the refugee problem

- wall sent a message that communism would survive in Berlin + Western control of Germany would fail

negative outcome of Berlin Wall on USA

- USSR had closed the border without consulting the USA

- people could no longer escape communism

positive outcome of Berlin Wall on USA

- Khrush had accepted Western control on West Berlin

- West Berlin became a symbol of freedom and defiance against communism.

Main areas of tension after Cuban Revolution

- American govt. would not provide econ. aid unless Cuba followed guidelines set my International Monetary Fund

- Castro had appointed communism to his govt. + in Feb 1960 made an agreement with Soviet Union

- Cuban govt. took all land from foreigners + paid compensation to previous owners. the USA failed to recognise this scheme

Why did the Bay of Pigs incident fail?

- Poor planning and intelligence — The CIA underestimated Castro's popularity and assumed Cubans would rise up against him

- Inadequate US support — Kennedy refused to provide open US military involvement (e.g., air support) to keep the operation covert, leaving the exiles exposed.

- Weakness of the exile force — The 1,400 Cuban exiles (Brigade 2506) were poorly trained compared to Castro's 20,000‑strong forces.

- Loss of secrecy — Castro's govt. has found out about the plans. 20,000 soldiers were waiting, ready for the invasion.

effects of the Bay of Pigs Incident

- Direct cause of the Cuban Missile Crisis — Fearing another US invasion, Castro allowed the USSR to place nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962.

- US humiliation — The CIA and Kennedy administration were embarrassed internationally; US foreign policy credibility was damaged.

How did the Bay of Pigs Incident strengthen relations between Cuba and the USSR?

Cuba-USSR alliance deepened — Castro publicly announced he was a communist and formally aligned with the Soviet Union, increasing Soviet influence in the Western Hemisphere.

Why did Khrushchev want to put missiles on Cuba?

To protect Cuba — After the Bay of Pigs invasion, Castro feared another US attack. Khrushchev wanted to guarantee Cuba's security and keep a communist ally in the Western Hemisphere.

To close the missile gap — The USA had missiles in Turkey, close to the USSR. Placing missiles in Cuba would balance this and reduce the American strategic advantage.

-> it was possible his real aim was to have the Turkish missile removed.

Define ExComm

ExComm was the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, a small group of senior advisers formed by President John F. Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) to help him decide how the USA should respond to Soviet missiles in Cuba.

What did Kennedy do on 22 October 1962?

announced to the nation that he was not going to launch an attack on Cuba but to set up a naval blockade around Cuba

-> if they were ignored, they would be sunk

What did the two telegrams sent by Khrushchev to Kennedy say?

First Telegram (26 October 1962)

- Khrushchev offered a peaceful deal — he would remove missiles from Cuba if the USA promised not to invade Cuba.

Second Telegram (27 October 1962)

- Added a new demand — the USA must also remove its missiles from Turkey.

What happened during the "13 Days" of the Cuban Missile Crisis?

Day 1 — 16 Oct

U‑2 spy plane photos show Soviet nuclear missile sites in Cuba. Kennedy is informed; ExComm is formed.

Day 2 — 17 Oct

More photos reveal missiles capable of hitting major US cities. Military pressure grows.

Day 3 — 18 Oct

Kennedy meets Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko, who denies any offensive weapons in Cuba.

Day 4 — 19 Oct

Kennedy leaves Washington briefly; ExComm debates airstrikes vs blockade.

Day 5 — 20 Oct

Kennedy decides on a naval blockade (called a "quarantine"). Plans for a TV address begin.

Day 6 — 21 Oct

Final confirmation that missiles are operational. Kennedy rehearses his speech.

Day 7 — 22 Oct

Kennedy addresses the nation, announcing the blockade and demanding missile removal. The world panics.

Day 8 — 23 Oct

US Navy prepares to stop Soviet ships. Khrushchev calls the blockade an "act of aggression."

Day 9 — 24 Oct

Soviet ships approach the blockade line... then turn back. Tension peaks.

Day 10 — 25 Oct

A dramatic UN meeting: the USA presents photographic proof of the missiles.

Day 11 — 26 Oct

First Khrushchev telegram: emotional, offering to remove missiles if the USA promises not to invade Cuba.

Day 12 — 27 Oct ("Black Saturday")

Second telegram: tougher, demanding removal of US missiles in Turkey.

A U‑2 plane is shot down over Cuba.

The crisis reaches its most dangerous point.

Day 13 — 28 Oct

Kennedy accepts the terms of the first telegram publicly; secretly agrees to remove missiles from Turkey. Khrushchev announces the USSR will remove missiles from Cuba. Crisis ends.

What role did Kennedy's brother play in ending the CMC?

Secret deal on Turkey — RFK privately promised that the USA would withdraw its Jupiter missiles from Turkey, but only after the crisis ended, not as part of the public agreement.

What steps were taken to make sure future misunderstandings would not cause war to break out?

- The "Hotline" (1963) - A direct telephone link was set up between Washington and Moscow so leaders could communicate instantly in a crisis, reducing the risk of misunderstandings.

- The Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963) - The USA, USSR, and UK agreed to ban nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater, and in space. This slowed the arms race and improved trust.

- Nuclear Non‑Proliferation Treaty (1968) - Aimed to stop the spread of nuclear weapons to other countries and encourage disarmament.

CMC improved relations:

- Better communication - The Hotline (1963) allowed direct, instant contact between Washington and Moscow, reducing the risk of misunderstandings.

- More willingness to negotiate - Both sides realised how close they came to nuclear war and became more cautious, relying more on diplomacy than brinkmanship.

- Arms‑control agreements - The Crisis encouraged treaties such as:

- Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963)

- Nuclear Non‑Proliferation Treaty (1968)

- SALT I (1972) These slowed the arms race and built trust.

- Start of détente - The Crisis helped push both superpowers towards the more cooperative atmosphere of the 1970s.

CMC did not improve relations:

- Continued mistrust - Both sides still viewed each other as ideological enemies. The arms race continued, especially with ICBMs and MIRVs.

- Secret deal on Turkey - The USA's hidden removal of missiles from Turkey showed that neither side fully trusted the other publicly.

- Leadership changes - Khrushchev was removed in 1964 partly because he was seen as weak; hardliners in both countries remained suspicious.

- Proxy conflicts continued - The Cold War still played out in Vietnam, the Middle East, and Africa — showing rivalry was far from over.

What had life been like for Czech people under Soviet rule since 1948?

- secret police were used to maintain control

- there was no freedom of speech, censorship and purges

- there was frequent protests against low standard of living and lack of freedom

What was 'socialism with a human face'?

Dubček's plans to bring in democratic reforms to Czechoslovakia and allow the people more freedoms

What were the key features of the Prague Spring?

- censorship was relaxed and criticism of govt. actions was allowed

- trade unions were given wider power and govt. control of industry was reduced

- more power was given to Czech regional govts.

- trade with the West increased

- Czech people were given greater freedom to travel abroad

- the idea of having a multi-party system was discussed

Why did Brezhnev disapprove of many of Dubcek's reforms?

- would make the other Warsaw Pact member want to do the same

- he was worried he would lose control of Czechoslovakia (like Romania and Yugoslavia)

What happened on 20 August 1968?

500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded Czechoslovakia and ended the 'Prague Spring'.

What were the reasons for the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia?

- Brezhnev knew that the West would not help Czechoslovakia

- Dubcek's reforms offered 'dangerous' freedoms

- The Soviet Union did not want to look like it had lost control over its satellites

- Soviet satellites + republics would want the same rights/freedoms

- The Soviet safety 'buffer zone' would be under threat

- The future of the Warsaw Pact might be endangered

What was the Brezhnev Doctrine?

Policy proclaimed in 1968 and declaring that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene in any Socialist country whenever it determined there was a need.

-> it also stated that the action of any individual communist country affected all communist countries

What was the impact of the Soviet Union's invasion of Czechoslovakia on relations with USA?

- The USA + West were angered by the invasion and many made strong protest.

- An attempt was made to pass a formal resolution criticising the invasion in the UN, but this was vetoed by the Soviet Union.

- The Soviets saw that the USA would be able to take direct action to oppose the Soviet Union in Europe

What was MAD? and what did the CMC show?

Mutually Assured Destruction - principle of deterrence founded on the notion that a nuclear attack by one superpower would be met with an overwhelming nuclear counterattack such that both the attacker and the defender would be annihilated.

CMC = showed that each country could lose control of events: a devastating war would break out by accident

What and when was the Hotline?

It was a trans-Atlantic cable that allowed more direct messages from Washington to Moscow.

it was set up in 1963

it showed that both side wanted to avoid another dangerous confrontation like the CMC

What and when was the Limited Test Ban Treaty?

signed by USA, Soviet Union and Britain in 1963

Stop testing weapons in the atmosphere, underwater + in space (only allowed underground)

-> it aimed to reduce nuclear fallout

What and when was the Outer Space Treaty?

1967

terms made were about space and nuclear weapons in space e.g., nuclear weapons were not to be placed in orbit or on other celestial bodies

-> stopped arms race spreading into outer space

What and when was the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty?

1968

Countries with nuclear weapons would not supply or help other countries build nuclear weapons. Countries without nuclear weapons agreed not be involved in developing nuclear weapons.

What was detente?

A period of peace between two groups that were previously at war, or hostile to each other

Why did the USA want detente?

1968: Nixon president

1. Wanted to take country out of Vietnam War (cost $170 billion, killed 60,000 soldiers)

many people were violently protesting it

2. riots in the US about inequality ( rich+poor, white+black) and the assassination of MLK

3. policy of detente was attractive as the USA would then stop spending so much money on weapons and more on trying to solve the social issues.

Why did the Soviet Union want detente?

- They felt they were equals in nuclear weapons so could discuss arms limitation from a position of strength

- the soviet union was facing economic issues and wanted to cut spending on weapons and devote more resources to updating economy and improving living standards.

- improved relationships meant it was more likely that the USA would share more technology (e.g computer chips and computers ) as the USSR was falling behind.

Why had relations between China and the Soviet Union deteriorated?

- Mao felt Chinese delegates had been treated badly in their visit to Moscow in 1950

- Criticism of each other's policies - Mao condemned Khrushchev for backing down in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Khrushchev criticised Mao's Great Leap Forward as reckless and dangerous.

- Withdrawal of Soviet experts (1960) - The USSR pulled out thousands of advisers and cancelled industrial projects in China, worsening economic and political tensions.

- In 1969, fighting has broke out on the Sino-Soviet border.

Why the USA wanted better relations with China:

- To weaken the USSR - By the late 1960s, the Sino‑Soviet split was deep. The USA saw a chance to isolate the USSR by improving ties with China.

- Vietnam War pressure - The USA hoped China might help encourage North Vietnam to negotiate, reducing US losses and costs.

- China's growing importance - China was becoming a major Asian power; ignoring it was no longer realistic.

Why China wanted better relations with the USA:

- Fear of the USSR - After border clashes with the Soviet Union (1969), China saw the USSR as a bigger threat than the USA.

- Economic and technological needs - China wanted access to Western trade, technology, and diplomatic recognition.

Why how was the improved relationship between the USA and China illustrated?

How this improvement was illustrated:

- Ping‑Pong Diplomacy (1971) - The US table‑tennis team was invited to China — the first Americans allowed in since 1949. A symbolic but powerful sign of warming relations.

- Kissinger's secret visit (1971) - Henry Kissinger secretly travelled to Beijing to arrange a major diplomatic breakthrough.

- Nixon's visit to China (1972) - Nixon met Chairman Mao and Premier Zhou Enlai — a historic moment showing a dramatic shift in Cold War alliances.

What was the SALT 1 agreement?

Treaty to limit arms signed in May 1972 between the USA and USSR, covering three main areas:

• The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty stated ABMs were only allowed in 2 sites in each country, with 100 missile each.

• Interim Treaty placed restrictions on numbers of ICBMs and SLBMs. Soviets were allowed more because the USA had more strategic bombers.

• Basic Principles Agreement laid down rules for conduct of nuclear warfare + ban placed on placing warheads on seabed.

Positives of SALT 1

It showed that both the USA and the soviet union wanted to reach an agreement + publicly display better relations.

Shortly after SALT 1, they met again to discuss SALT 2

Weaknesses of SALT 1?

A piece of paper isn’t going to stop nuclear war → both countries still had more than enough weapons to destroy each other.

The treaty did not cover the latest technology, MIRVs