Unit 3

Grain By-Products

• residual nutrients after extraction of starch and oil from grain

• Provide energy, fiber, and protein rations

• protein quality is not better than initial grain

Corn Processing: WET Milling

• Starch, sugar, syrup, corn oil for human food

• Steep water, corn gluten meal, corn gluten feed for animal feed

By-Products of WET Milling

Corn Gluten Feed (CGF)

Beef Cattle: Dpends on forage in diet

• 30% or less of diet DM with high-forage diet

• 90% of diet DM with low forage diet

Dairy Cattle:

• 30% of diet DM

Swine:

• up to 20% in grow-finish (must alance AA)

• up to 90% in gestating sows

Poultry

• up to 30% in layer diets

Companion animals: not used

Concerns with CGF

Storage: spoilage due to moisture if not dried

Sulfur concentration:

• limits amount fed to ruminants

• Too much causes polioencephalomalacia - interacts with thiamin

Fiber concentration: high fiber limits amount fed to growing swine, poultry, companion animals, and lactating dairy cows

Corn Gluten MEAL (CGM)

Beef Cattle:

• Feedlot - 50% of protein supplement (considered bypass protein)

• Cows - not cost-effecive (no need for RUP)

Dairy Cattle:

• Lactating cows: 50% of protein supplement (bypass protein)

Swine: up to 15% of diet

• Lysine limiting (must balance AA)

Poultry & companion animals: limit to <5%

• impacts yellow pigment to skin and egg yolk

• Impacts color of diet

Steep Water

Beef cattle:

• feedlot - < 12% of diet DM

• Growing cattle & cows: used in liquid suppliments and protein tubs, very high TDN

Dairy Cattle: up to 5% of diet

Swine:

• Grow-finish - up to 15% of diet DM for liquid diets

Poultry: up to 5% of diet DM

Fish: up to 100% of the diet

Companion animals: Not used

Corn Processing: DRY Milling

• corn meal, hominy corn grits, ethanol for humans

• WDG, DDG, WDGS, DDGS for animal feed

By-Products of DRY Milling

Dried Distillers Grains (DDGs)

Beef cattle:

• limit to 40% of diet DM (feedlot)

• Can be up to 100% for other cattle to supplement forage

Dairy, sheep, & goats: 15-25% of diet DM across stages

Swine:

• Grow-finish - up to 30% of diet

• Gestating sows - up to 50% of diet

• Lactating sows - up to 30% of diet

Poultry: up to 15% f diet

Companion animals/horses: not used

Concerns with DDGs

Sulfur content

• Polioencephalomalacia (PEM) = necrosis of brain tissue

• Dietary S is reduced to hydrogen sulfide → very toxic

• Shifts rumen microbes to produce thiaminase (causes thiamin deficiency)

High fiber content (>30% NDF)

Fat content (10%)

• May reduce feed intake and fiber digestion in ruminants

• May cause milk fat depression in lactating dairy cows

• High level of unsaturated fatty acids cause soft pork fat

Concerns with DDGs continued…

Phosphorus content:

• May cause urinary calculi in steers or lambs if Ca:P balance is not corrected

• Need to add calcium supplement (limestone)

Mycotoxins

• concentrated 3X the level of corn

Wheat Milling

By-products of beer brewing

• initial substrate usually barley

• primarily used in dairy and horse diets, some companion animal diets (small concentrations)

• Not used in swine or poultry diets due to fiber content

Brewers rice

not from beer brewing, but from rice processing

used in pet food and beer brewing

By products of oat processing

Typically too expensive for livestock, used in companion animal diets

T or F: By-products retain nutrients

TRUE

Wet milling produces ____, while dry milling produces ____.

Wet milling produces CGM, while dry milling produces DDGs.

General characteristics of FORAGES

• low in energy (compared to energy or protein feedstuffs)

• High fiber (over 40% NDF DMB)

• Protein: <20% CP (except legumes), RDP

• Calcium (big difference between species): higher than energy and plant protein supplements

• Major feedstuff for herbavors

• Limited use in poultry, swine, and compaion animals (too much fiber)

Factors determining Forage Quality

• forage species

• maturity

• processing

• soil

• harvest method and quality of stoarge (nutrient preservation)

Impact of Maturity on forage quality

Increases NDF → reduces feed intake

Increases ADF & Lignin → reduces digestibility

Reduces CP and soluble carbohydrates → reduces digestibility

Major forage classes

• Cool season grasses

• Warm season grasses

• Legumes

Grasses

• Monocots

• Narrow leaves

• joined stems with flowers/seeds on top

• EX. Fescue, corn

Legumes

• Dicots

• form seeds in pods

• broad leaves

• colorful and prominent flowers

• EX. clover, alfalfa

Nutritional value: Cool season grasses

Nutritional Value: warm season grasses

Nutritional value: Legumes

Cool season Grasses

• most productive during spring to early summer and again in the fall

  • 66% of growth before june

• sensitive to heat and drought (mid-summer)

• Most common grasses in the midwest

Use of cool season grasses

Nutritional qualities of cool season grasses

Anti-quality factors in cool season grasses

Endophyte fungus

Tryptamine alkaloids

Endophyte fungus

• found in tall fescue and perennial ryegrass

• produces toxic alkaloids

  • chemically similar to dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin

  • ergovaline, lysergic acid, etc.

• primarily in the seed

• transfer to pasture via the seed

Fescue Toxicosis

Physiological effects (inflammatory response)

• vasoconstriction

• high core body temperature (mimics heat stress)

• Lower heart rate

• suppression of immune system

• toxins mimic dopamine and reduce prolactin

Fescue Toxicosis → results on the animal

• decrease intake and weight gain

• retention of winter hair coat

• standing in water sources

• low milk production

• Hoof loss (vasoconstriction)

• REPRODUCTIVE PROBLEMS:

  • low pregnancy rate, dystocia, retained placental, placenta before foal

Management to prevent fescue toxicosis

Prevent excessive maturity of forage - prevent consumption of seed

Dilute with legume forages in tail fescue pastures

Rotate animals to non-fescue pastures

Endophyte-free varieties → do not preform well in pasture

Tryptamine alkaloids

• found in reed canary grass

• physiologically of prussic acid → serotonin receptor agonist

• Common effects of animal:

  • reduced feed intake and growth

  • staggers and sudden death (neurological)

Management of tryptamine alkaloids

• plant low-alkaloid varieties

• rotate animals to paddocks without reed canary grass

• cobalt supplementation

  • involved in serotonin metabolism

  • component of vitamin B12

• Frost increases prussic acid

Warm season grasses

70% of production occurs in June and July

Very productive yields

Use of warm season grasses

Nutritional qualities of warm season grasses

Anti-quality factors in warm season grasses

Nitrates

Cyanogenic glycosides

Nitrates

• drought stricken forages

• inhibit oxygen transported by hemoglobin

• Management:

  • ensile crops

  • dilute high nitrate feeds with other feeds such as grains

Cyanogenic glycosides

• Present in new growth of sorghum x sudangrass and sudangrass forages

• converted to hydrocyanic acid

• inhibits oxygen uptake by hemoglobin

Management of Cyanogenic Glycosides

• Avoid grazing until forage is a minimum of 18 inches tall

• Horses very susceptible

• Pandas and lemurs not an issue

Legumes

• High yield and very palatable

• Higher digestibility than grasses

• Can be mixed with grasses

• Growth greatest in spring → more uniform growth over the season compared to grasses

Use of legumes

Nutritional qualities of legumes

Anti-quality factors in legumes

Slafractonia leguminicola

Bloat

Phytoestrogens

Coumarin

Tannins

Slafractonia leguminicola

• Fungus that grows on legumes (“black patch disease”)

• Slobbering horses

• Risk of dehydration due to excessive saliva production

Bloat

• Inability to release fermentation gases

• Occurs in ruminants consuming fresh, immature legumes

• Caused by high concentrations of soluble protein that results in the formation of foam in the rumen

  • inhibits eructation

  • can result on death

Bloat Prevention

• Plant mixtures of grasses and legumes

• Allow legumes to mature before grazing

• Feed dry hay before placing on pastures

• Avoid moving animals to pastures containing a high concentration of legumes early in the morning

• Limit daily forage allowance

• Have water available in each paddock of a rotationally grazed pasture

Another way to prevent bloat is to make __________ avaliable to animals grazing legumes

poloxalene

• sold as “bloat gaurd”

• avaliable in blocks or supplements

Phytoestrogens

• present in alfalfa and clover

• can affect reproduction and mammary development

Coumarin

• present in sweet clover

• converted to dicoumarol in moldy sweet-clover

• results in hemorrhaging in animals consuming the hay

Tannins

• present in birdsfoot trefoil

• prevent bloat

• reduce protein degradation in rumen

• chelates minerals such as iron

Forages are ______ in fiber but _____ in energy and protein

Forages are HIGH in fiber but LOW in energy and protein

T or F: Anti-quality factors in forages can benifit animal health and preformance

FALSE

Anti-quality factors in forages can HARM animal health and preformance

Effective forage management ________ nutrition and ________ health risks

Effective forage management improves nutrition and reduces health risks

Haymaking

Dehydration of green forage to a moisture content of <15%

Nutritional quality affected by:

• forage species

• maturity

• losses during harvest, storage, and feeding

Steps of Haymaking

1. Harvest

2. Curing

3. Raking

4. Storage

1. Harvest

• Optimum stage of maturity to provide maximum yield

• Typically “early bloom” stage of maturity is ideal (depends on market)

• Very weather dependant

• Time of day dependent (early AM has less sugar and more protein)

2. Curing & 3. Raking

• Reduce moisture content to store without spoilage or nutrient loss

• Goal is 18-22% moisture

• Raking facilities drying

Curing & raking: Conditioning & chemical conditioners

Conditioning:

• crimpers crush plant stems between rollers

• facilitates the drying process

Chemical conditioners:

• reduces drying time by ½ day

• Effective on legumes, but not on grass

4. Bailing and Storage

Done as soon as possible when hay is dry

• square bales need covered storage to prevent rain exposure

• Round bales shed water and can be left in field

_______ hay is LESS susceptible to damage

GRASS

Forage quality

Relative feed value

• calculated value used to determine quality of forage (hay)

• Based on digestible DM, DMI, ADF, and NDF

Leaf Loss

Compared to stems, leaves contain:

• More protein, sugars, carotenoids, and minerals

• Less NDF and ADF

Loss increased by:

• raking at higher DM concentrations

• Bailing with a large round baler compared to square bales

• Rain, particularly if the forage is relatively dry

Heat Damage

Occurs when hay is stored at moisture >18%

Stimulates growth of aerobic bacteria and mold

• metabolizes sugars and starch

• causes additional heating

  • temp >120˚F = damage to proteins, temp >160˚F = spontaneous combustion

• Results in decreased net energy and decreased protein digestion (ADIN)

Bleachinng

• exposure to sunlight

• results in color loss (loss of chlorophyll)

• loss of beta-carotene and vitamin A activity

Leaching

• loss os soluble nutrients in rainfall or snow melt

• Occurs during:

  • rainfall prior to bailing

  • outside storage of bales

• Losses greater from legumes than grasses

T or F: Hay does not have the same nutritive value as the fresh forage

True

Substantial loss of nutrients

Hay preservatives

• Allow aerobic storage of hay at higher moisture content (25-30% DM)

  • inhibits microbial activity

• Propionic acid, acetic acid, sodium propionate, or sodium diacetate

• Anhydrous ammonia at 60lbs/ton

  • effective fungicide

  • do not use on high-quality hay

Ensilling

• Storage of a forage or grain crop at a relatively high moisture content

• Anaerobic conditions allow for fermentation

• Preserved by lactic acid as long as not exposed to oxygen

Important factors for ensiling

dry matter, pH, and anaerobic conditions

Goals:

• decrease pH of ensiled crop to <4

• Increase lactic acid concentration of ensiled crop to >4% of DM

Ensiling: Molding and heating of crop

• occurs if forage is exposed to oxygen

• forage DM% > 60%

Butyrate acid production, protein degradation, and seepage from silage

• forage DM% < 30%

• Dependent on forage species

Aerobic phase

• Plant respiration continues until anaerobic conditions set in

• Acetic acid-producing bacteria oxidize sugars, consume O2

• Temp increases to 80-100˚ F

• Less than 24 hours

Heterofermentative phase

• Bacteria ferment sugars to acetic acid, lactic acid, and CO2

• pH decreased to 5.0

• Less than 1 week

Homofermentative Phase

• Lactic acid bacteria ferment sugars to lactic acid

• increased concentration of lactic acid (6-8% of DM)

  • pH decreases to 3.8 - 4.2

• Less than 2 weeks

Storage Phase

• If not exposed to oxygen → forage well preserved with little change in composition

• If exposed to oxygen → aerobic bacteria and mold growth, growth of listeria bacteria

Feedout phase

• Exposes silage to oxygen

• Growth of aerobic bacteria and molds

  • Results in heating, loss of lactic acid, nutrient loss, and decreased palatability

• Losses minimized by adequate feedout rate

  • Match diameter of tower silos or width of bunker to herd size

Storage types:

Tower → easy to pack, minimal exposed surface, expensive

Bunker or trench → difficult to pack, requires cover, considerable surface area at feeding, less expensive than towers

Silo bags → easy to pack, minimal exposed surface, versatile, bags subject to punctures and tears, relatively low capital investment

Baleage

• 45-55% moisture

• full stem

• baled

• wrapped in plastic within 12-24 hours

• equipment cheaper than ensiling

Haylage

• 60-70% moisture

• chopped (silage chopper)

• smaller particle size

• packed as with ensiling

• ensils faster

• needs similar equipment as with silage

Nutrient composition of silage

• Lower NDF, but comparable ADF to fresh crop or hay

• Comparable net energy concentration to fresh crop

• Comparable crude protein concentration to fresh crop and greater than hay

• Greater proportion of crude protein degraded in the rumen than fresh crop or hay

• Higher carotene content than hay (greater vitamin A activity)

T or F: Hay quality depends on timing, technique, and minimizing handling losses

True

________ control is vital to prevent spolage and heat damage

Moisture

_________ & __________ impact forage nutritional value

Leaf retention

&

Storage type

Effective ensiling requires proper fermentation under ___________ conditions

anaerobic

T or F: Silage, haylage, and baleage vary in moisture, processing, and storage needs

True

Feed additive

an ingredient or combination of ingredients added to the basic feed

mix...to fulfill a specific need

• usually used in micro quantities and requires careful handling and

  mixing

Major classes of Feed Additives

• Growth promotion and feed efficiency

• Medical uses

• Hormone-like products

• Other uses

Use of feed additives is strictly regulated to ensure:

• Human food safety

• Animal Safety

• additive efficiency

• Minimal environmental impact

International marketing of animal products has led to more uniformity in regulations among countries

Controlled

Regulations

Additives classed as drugs

controlled by the FDA (CVM)

Federal law states that no animal drug can be used in feed until adequate research submitted to the FDA proves the drugs is both safe and effective

• manufacturers go through extensive testing (expensive)

Additives classed as drugs: Antibiotics

compounds produced by microorganisms

• Inhibit growth/metabolism of some (not all) other microorganism

• Most antibiotic names end in –cin or –mycin

Require Veterinary Feed Directive (VFD) → goal to improve antibiotic stewardship and reduce antibiotic resistance

VFD requirements

Growth promotion and feed efficiency

2 antibiotics used in ruminants:

1. monensin (Rumensin) (cattle only)

2. lasalocid (Bovatec)

used in both growing and mature animals

also Ionophores

Ionophores

do not require VFD

• Mode of action is to disrupt ion movement across cell membranes of affected bacterial species in the rumen

• Shifts bacteria to production of propionic acid and away from acetic acid

  • energy from propionic acid is more efficient - less carbon lost as CO2

Ionophore inclusion (Ruminants only)