Ap world period 2 vocab (units 3-4)

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Capital

Material wealth (usually gold and silver) available to produce more wealth; investment

• financial assets, money, or physical resources (factories, machinery, tools) used to invest in, produce goods, and generate wealth

Commercial Revolution

The period of European expansion of a trade-based economy using gold and silver, which resulted in many factors such as the development of overseas colonies, new ocean trade routes, population growth, and inflation.

Price Revolution

A period of high inflation in Europe during the 16th and early 17th centuries, largely driven by the massive influx of gold and silver from the Americas (Columbian Exchange) and post-plague population recovery

Joint-stock companies

Business entities where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders, allowing for the pooling of capital for large-scale investments

• Companies owned by investors who bought stock or shares in them.

Limited Liability

A form of business ownership in which the owners are liable only up to the amount of their individual investment

• This made investing safer as one individual wasn't responsible for all of a company’s debt or liability.

Dutch East India Company

A Dutch joint-stock company established in 1602 that conducted maritime trading and monopolization activities in the East Indies and Spice Islands (Southeast Asia).

• A trading company created by the Netherlands to conduct trade in the East Indies, which became one of the first multinational corporations

Triangular Trade

A three way system of trade during the 17th to 19th centuries consisting of Europe, the Americas, and West Africa.

• Enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas, sugar and tobacco products from the Americas to Europe, European goods (e.g. firearms) to the West Africa

Monopolies

Corporations, governments, or joint-stock companies that gain complete control of the production of a single good or service.

• A single company or government has exclusive control over a product or service, often due to a government-granted charter that gives it exclusive rights to trade in a specific region

Dahomey/Oyo

African societies that conducted slave raids and became richer from the slave trade with Europeans

Polygyny

having more than one wife; caused by demographic imbalance in West Africa from taking more males as slaves

Viceroys

High-ranking officials who acted as administrators and representatives of the Spanish crown in colonial territories.

Audiencias

Courts appointed by the king, who reviewed the administration of viceroys serving Spanish colonies in America.

• Spanish royal courts that operated in colonies to check on viceroys' power and prevent them from acting independently

Santeria

Means "the way of the saints", a religion that developed in Cuba from the syncretism of West African (primarily Yoruba) religious practices with Roman Catholicism, brought about by enslaved Africans

Vodun

Means "spirit" or "deity". This belief system originated with African Peoples of Dahomey, Kongo, and Yoruba who were enslaved and living in Saint-Domingue, which is now Haiti. It blends these African traditions with elements of Catholicism and indigenous beliefs

Candomble

A syncretic Afro-Brazilian religion that blends traditional African spiritualities (like Yoruba, Bantu, and Fon) with elements of Catholicism, meaning “dance to honor the gods”

Virgin of Guadalupe

An apparition of the Virgin Mary said to have appeared to a Mexican farmer (Juan Diego) in 1531. She exerted a powerful attraction to Mesoamerica's surviving Amerindians and became an icon of Mexican identity.

• A key concept representing syncretism, or the blending of indigenous Mesoamerican and spanish catholic traditions in colonial Mexico.

Metacom's War

A 1675-1676 conflict in New England between a coalition of Native American tribes led by the Wampanoag chief Metacom (King Philip) and English colonists

• (1675-1678) also called King Philip's war, an armed conflict between the English and indigenous peoples in pressures of controling Native American lands

Ndongo

African state located in modern-day Angola, where it peaked under the reign of Queen Ana Nzinga, who resisted Portuguese slave raids and aided enslaved Africans.

Matamba

An African kingdom known for its female rulers. Nzinga and her people fled west, taking over the state of Matamba. Nzinga ruled for decades, building Matamba into an economically strong state.

• Pre-colonial African states joined to the Kingdom of Ndongo under Queen Nzinga, which became economically strong and resistant to Portuguese slave raids.

Black Sea

A strategic inland sea located between Southeastern Europe and Anatolia, significant for its connection to the Mediterranean Sea via the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.

• large body of water between Europe and Asia; north of modern-day Turkey

Steppes

Dry grasslands where peasants who were skilled fighters lived.

• a large area of flat, unforested grassland in southeastern Europe and Siberia

Pugachev Rebellion

(1773-1775) A peasant uprising in Russia led by Yemelyan Pugachev against Catherine the Great for increasing the power of the nobility over serfs. Resulted in the Russian army suppressing the uprising, Pugachev being executed, and increased oppression of peasants to prevent further revolts

Pueblo Revolt

A revolt led by the Pueblo and Apache groups against the Spanish in modern-day New Mexico. Initially successful with churches burned and the Spanish driven out, but the Spanish reconquered the area in 1692.

Resisting conversion, forced labor

Maroon Wars

(1728-1740 & 1795-1796) Conflicts between Jamaica Maroons (descendants of Africans, escaped slavery in Jamaica) and English colonial men who took control of Jamaica after defeating the Spanish. First resulted in a peace treaty, second time was a defeat and deportation of many Maroons

Gloucester County Rebellion

(1663) First recorded slave revolt in the United States where enslaved Africans and White indentured servants conspired together to gain freedom from their governor.

• Resulted in them getting ambushed and arrested after authorities learned about the plot

Glorious Revolution

(1688) The overthrow of King James II of England by Parliament and the Dutch prince William of Orange. Along with Mary II, King William established a constitutional monarchy and a transition to Protestantism in England

• This largely bloodless event established England as a constitutional monarchy, significantly increasing the power of Parliament over the monarchy and limiting the powers of the crown.

Mohegan

Meaning "people of the wolf"; a Native American tribe based in modern-day Uncasville, Connecticut that sided with the English in Metacom's War

Pequot

Meaning "destroyers"; a Native American tribe based in Conneticut who, along with the Mohegan, sided with the English in Metacom's War

• An Algonquian-speaking indigenous people of southern New England, who were the subject of the Pequot War (1636–1637) with English colonists

Wampanoag

A Native American tribe based in southern Massachusetts and Rhode Island who interacted and eventually subjected to English colonial rule

• A Native American people from the New England region known for their pivotal role in the early colonial interactions with the English settlers, including the initial peace treaty, and their later leadership in King Philip's War.

Pequot War

A conflict between the dominant Pequot tribe and an alliance of English colonists and their Native American allies (including the Narragansett and Mohegan) in New England

Timar

Ottoman system where the sultan granted land or tax revenues to cavalrymen he favored in exchange for military service

Harem

living quarters reserved for wives and concubines, and female relatives in a Muslim household.

• Led to a system of competition where wives and concubines of sultans competed to promote their sons as heir to the throne, which led to viziers claiming “Sultanate of women.”

Barbary Pirates

North African pirates along the Barbary Coast who captured Europeans in the Mediterranean and sold them to the sultan or other muslim officials

impressed

The practice of forcibly conscripting or drafting men into military or naval service, most commonly used by the British Navy to forcefully recruit sailors.

Maroons

Enslaved Africans who escaped from slavery in the Americas and formed their own independent communities in remote areas, such as mountains or forests.

• Descendants of Africans, escape slavery in Jamaica

Queues

Manchu hairstyle consisting of a braided pigtail on the back with a shaved top scalp; all men required to acquire the hairstyle under the Qing Dynasty.

Nobility

A high-ranking social class usually consisting of wealthy landowners who had special privileges, such as land and titles granted by the monarch

Sephardic Jews

Jews who trace their heritage back to spain.

Ashkenazi Jews

Jews who trace their heritage back to Central and Eastern Europe

Casta System

A hierarchical social structure established in colonial Latin America by the Spanish which seperated individuals into social classes defined by racial and ethnic heritages.

Peninsulares

Those who were born on the Iberian peninsula (consists of mostly Spain and Portugal) and stood at the top of the social pyramid in Latin America.

Criollos

Those of European ancestry who were born in the Americas and stood second in the social pyramid in Latin America.

Castas

People of mixed-race ancestry and stood third in the social pyrmaid in Latin America; there are three types of castas: mestizos, mulattoes, and zambos.

Mestizos

Those of mixed European and indigenous ancestry, and is the top of three parts of the castas social class.

Mulattoes

Those of mixed European and African ancestry, and is the second of three parts of the castas social class.

Zambos

Those of mixed indigenous and African ancestry, and is the bottom of three parts of the castas social class.

Columbian exchange

The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Western (Americas) and Eastern (Afro-Eurasia) hemispheres through the voyages of Christopher Columbus; resulted in a growing global economy, changing population, and changes in biodiversity

Conquistadores

Spanish 'conqueror' or soldier in the New World. They were searching for the 3-G's: gold, God, and glory. Spanish conquerors of the Native American lands, most notably the Aztec and Inca empires.

• Spanish explorers and soldiers who led military expeditions in the Americas during the 15th and 16th centuries, primarily to conquer indigenous territories and claim them for Spain

Small pox

A contagious, respiratory disease spread by Europeans in the Americas; led to the deaths of millions of Native Americans in North and South America (natives were not immune as they had no previous exposure to European diseases)

Transatlantic Slave Trade

A brutal system of forced migration from the 16th to the 19th centuries, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic to the Americas to be enslaved

• Led to significant resistance, cultural, economic, and social effects in both Africa and the Americas

Egenhos

The Portuguese term for a sugar plantation and mill complex in colonial Brazil. Sugar plantations processed so much sugar that they were referred to as engenhos, which means "engines" in Brazil.

• Portguese term used to refer to sugar plantations including African slaves who worked in sugar production; usually had horrible working conditions

Cash Crops

Crops, such as tobacco, sugar, and cotton, raised in large quantities in order to be sold for profit rather than subsistence.

African Diaspora

The separation of Africans from their homeland through centuries of forced removal to serve as slaves in the Americas and elsewhere.

• The dispersion of people of African descent across the world, particularly as a result of the transatlantic slave trade and other forms of migration.

Creole

A language that results from the mixing of a colonizer's language with the indigenous language of the people being dominated.

Indentured Servitude

A worker bound by a voluntary agreement to work for a specified period of years, often in return for free passage to an overseas destination and eventual freedom

Chattel Slavery

Absolute legal ownership of another person, including the right to buy or sell that person. Individuals considered property.

East India Company (EIC)

A government-chartered, joint-stock company that began as a trading company in 1600 and became a powerful political and military force in India

• It started as a trading organization focused on commerce but gradually gained political power through military conquests and strategic alliances.

New Spain

After the defeat of the Aztecs, it became a Spanish colony. The Spanish colonial territory established in the Americas after the conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521.

Mexico City

Capital of New Spain; built on the ruins of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan after the Spanish conquest in 1521.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement between Portugal and Spain, declaring that newly discovered lands to the west of an imaginary line in the Atlantic Ocean would belong to Spain and newly discovered lands to the east of the line would belong to Portugal.

Hispaniola

Caribbean island, present-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The site of the first permanent Spanish settlement in the Americas.

• Name given by Columbus to the islands of Haiti and the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean, the first islands he discovered on his voyage westward

Encomienda

A labor system that granted Spanish settlers the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in exchange for protection and religious instruction (Christianization)

• a Spanish colonial labor system (16th–18th centuries) where the Crown granted settlers (encomenderos) the right to indigenous labor and tribute in exchange for protection and Catholic instruction.

Encomenderos

Spanish settlers who were in charge of the natives working on the encomiendas.

• Spanish colonists who were granted the right to demand tribute and forced labor from specific groups of Indigenous people in the Americas.

Hacienda System

A Spanish labor system that consisted of landowners with large agricultural plantations (crops included wheat, fruit, vegetables, and sugar) and coerced labor, including Natives and enslaved Africans

• Used land ownership as the main vehicle for controlling native Americans through coerced labor

Middle Passage

A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies.

• The brutal transatlantic journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas as part of the slave trade. It was the second leg of the Triangle Trade, where enslaved people were packed into horrific conditions on ships for voyages that could last weeks or months.

Mita System

The Spanish colonial version of the Incan labor system, which heavily exploited indigenous people by forcing them to work in mines, particularly silver mines.

Cartography

The science and practice of making maps; improved during the Age of Exploration as better maps helped navigators travel farther and more accurately.

Primogeniture laws

European laws stating that the oldest son inherited all of the family's land or wealth, motivating younger sons to seek fortune through exploration and colonization.

Omani-European Rivalry

A trade competition in the Indian Ocean during the 15th to 17th centuries, where European traders, particularly the Portuguese, competed with the Omani for control of the lucrative trade routes and settlements; fueled Columbus's search for a new route to India

Maritime Empires

Empires that gained wealth and power primarily through sea-based trade and colonization, such as the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French empires.

Astronomical Chart

A map of stars and celestial bodies used by sailors to navigate at sea before modern instruments like the compass or GPS.

• Graphical maps of the celestial objects that were vital for navigation during the period of increased global exploration

Carrack

A large, multi-masted sailing ship developed in 14th-century Europe (primarily Portugal) that was a key vessel for the Age of Exploration due to its large cargo capacity and ability to handle rough seas

• A large, sturdy European sailing ship developed in the 15th century, used by Portuguese and Spanish explorers on long voyages (e.g., Columbus's Santa María).

Caravel

A small, fast, and highly maneuverable Portuguese ship with lateen (triangular) sails; ideal for exploring along African coasts and across the Atlantic.

Fluyt

A Dutch cargo ship designed to carry large amounts of goods efficiently and cheaply, helping the Dutch dominate Indian Ocean and Atlantic trade in the 17th century.

Mercantalism

An economic theory that a nation's strength depended on its wealth, especially gold and silver; encouraged colonies to provide raw materials and markets for the mother country.

• A nation’s power depends on accumulating wealth—specifically gold and silver—through a positive trade balance, in which exports exceed imports. It involved heavy state regulation, colonial exploitation for raw materials

Trading Post Empire

A form of imperial dominance based on controlling key ports and trade routes rather than large territories; used by the Portuguese in Africa and Asia.

• A maritime empire established primarily for controlling trade routes through a network of fortified trading posts, rather than for direct territorial control.

Manila

Capital of the Spanish Philippines and a major multicultural trade city that already had a population of more than 40,000 by 1600. Vital center for the Manila Galleon trade.

• A Spanish trading port in the Philippines established in 1571; became a key center for the silver trade between the Americas and Asia (especially China).

Galleons

Large, heavily armed ships used to carry silver from New World colonies to Spain; the basis for the convoy system utilized by Spain for the transportation of bullion (gold or silver in bulk). Heavily armed Spanish ships allowed the silver trade to flourish.

• Large, heavily armed Spanish ships used to transport silver from the Americas to Asia and Europe during the 16th-18th centuries.

Northwest Passage

A route through or around North America that would lead to East Asia and the precious trade in spices and luxury goods.

• A hoped-for sea route through or around North America connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; European explorers searched for it to reach Asia more directly.

Quebec

The first permanent French settlement in North America, founded by Samuel de Champlain in 1608; became the center of French fur trading.

• The capital of the French colony of New France

New France

The French colonial territory in North America (mainly Canada and parts of the Mississippi Valley); focused on trade, especially fur, and alliances with Indigenous peoples.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in Virginia in 1607; became successful through tobacco cultivation.

New Amsterdam

The Dutch claimed the Hudson River Valley and the island of Manhattan. On the tip of this island, they settled a community called New Amsterdam, which is today New York.

• A Dutch colony founded in 1625 on Manhattan Island as a trading center; later taken over by the English and renamed New York.

Prince Henry the Navigator

(1394-1460) Portuguese prince who sponsored many maritime expeditions to search for a route to the East as well as for African gold

Bartholomew Diaz

(1450-1500) Portuguese explorer who sailed around the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, in 1488

Vasco de Gama

(c. 1460-1524) Portuguese explorer who sailed around Africa and landed in India in 1498, claiming some territory for the empire to expand trade

Ferdinand Magellan

(c. 1480-1521) Spanish explorer where his voyages became the first to circumnavigate the Earth; he was unable to complete the journey as he died in the Phillipine Islands, so one of his ships completed the journey

Manila

A Spanish trading port in the Philippines established in 1571; became a key center for the silver trade between the Americas and Asia (especially China).

Jacques Cartier

(1491-1557) French explorer who sailed from the Atlantic Ocean into the St. Lawrence River in 1535 (current northern U.S. border) in search of a northwest passage; he claimed part of modern-day Canada for France

Samuel de Champlain

(1567-1635) French explorer known as the "Father of New France" for his role in established French settlements in North America like Quebec primarily for resource gathering

John Cabot

(c. 1450-c. 1499) Italian explorer sent by the English King Henry VII on the search for a northwest passage; unsuccessful in his search but claimed lands from Newfoundland to Chesapeake Bay

Henry Hudson

(c. 1565- vanished 1611) English explorer sent by the Dutch to explore the East Coast of North America and a northwest passage; his voyages influenced subsequent Dutch expeditions to North America

Horse

a domesticated, one-toed, hoofed mammal; brought from Europe to the Americas and made hunting easier, creating a food surplus

Maize

corn, brought from Mesoamerica to Europe

Cacao

a tropical tree whose seeds are used to make chocolate, brought from Mesoamerica to Europe

Okra

green, seed pods brought from Africa to the Americas by the Columbian Exchange; contributed ot the creation of the creole dish, gumbo

Rice

stable cereal grain brought from Africa to the Americas by the Columbian Exchange; contributed ot the creation of the creole dish, gumbo

Sugarcane

a grassy plant that is a natural source of sugar, common cash crop cultivated in Brazil under the Portuguese

Gumbo

a traditional stew that originated in Louisiana, heavily influenced in African cooking

Li Chengdong

(?-1649) Han Chinese defector who orchestrated three separate massacres in Jaiding within one month, influenced by Qing pressures