1. Periodization of theory and practice of translation according to G. Steiner.

State exam 2026 Theory of Translation block of questions

Who is George Steiner and what is his main work on translation theory?

George Steiner is a literary critic and translation theorist. His main work is the monograph 'After Babel', in which he outlines 4 periods in the theory, practice, and history of translation.

What are the chronological boundaries and main features of the 1st period according to Steiner?

100 BC – 1791 — The Practical Era. Pre-scientific and pre-theoretical period. Word-for-word or sense-for-sense translation. Includes: Romans (Cicero, Horace), Scholasticism, Renaissance (Luther), Enlightenment, Romanticism (Schleiermacher), French Classicism (Tytler, Dryden), Goethe, Wilhelm von Humboldt.

What does the 2nd period according to Steiner cover?

19th century – 1940s. Literary, historical, and philosophical approach to translation. French School: Chateaubriand, de Staël, Lamartine, Nerval. German School: Schlegel, Humboldt, Goethe. Anglo-American theories: Pound, Eliot, Richards. Soviet School: Gorky, Fedorov.

What is the key feature of the 3rd period according to Steiner?

1940s – 1960s. Shift from a dilettantish (literary) to a linguistic/systematic approach. Official birth of modern Translation Theory. Focus on equivalence, context, and genre of the text.

What is the key feature of the 4th period according to Steiner?

1960s – present. Translation becomes an interdisciplinary field — Translation Studies (term coined by J. Holmes in 1972). Translation is viewed as cross-cultural communication, not just word substitution.

What are the 4 sub-trends within the 4th period according to Steiner?

1. Linguistic Turn / DTS (1970s) — Holmes, Lefevere, Toury, Even-Zohar. 2. Cultural Turn (1980s) — Venuti, Spivak. 3. Empirical Turn (1990s) — Baker, Chesterman. 4. Global Turn (2000s) — Cronin, Simon.

Who coined the term 'Translation Studies' and when?

James S. Holmes in 1972.

What is Tytler's definition of translation?

The translator must give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.

What was the Soviet School's view on translation?

Instrumentalist view: translation is a tool for enriching people's culture and disseminating information. Key figures: Lenin, Stalin, Gorky. The most important theoretical contributor was Fedorov.

What did the German Romantics believe about translation?

They saw translation as an intellectual activity aimed at improving the original, elevating the receptor language, and enriching national culture. Translation was also a means to express individuality.

What is Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS)?

A systematic, empirical science from the 1970s, seeking to describe and explain translation phenomena in social, historical, and ideological contexts. Key scholars: Holmes, Lefevere, Toury, Even-Zohar.

What is the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies?

From the 1980s, translation studies allied with cultural, post-colonial, feminist and gender studies. Focus on power relations, ethics, manipulation, ideology, and the translator's identity. Key scholars: Venuti, Spivak.

What is the Empirical Turn in Translation Studies?

From the 1990s, scientific study of translation using empirical and experimental methods. Includes Corpus Translation Studies, Cognitive Studies, Process-oriented research. Key scholars: Mona Baker, Andrew Chesterman.

What is the Global Turn in Translation Studies?

From the 2000s, translation became interwoven with digitization, localization, globalization, and internationalization. Key scholars: Michael Cronin, Sherry Simon.

Name all 4 periods according to Steiner briefly.

1st: 100 BC–1791 — Practical Era. 2nd: 19th c.–1940s — Literary/early linguistic. 3rd: 1940s–1960s — Systematic/linguistic. 4th: 1960s–present — Interdisciplinary/Cultural/Empirical/Global turn.