BIO 233 Unit 1: Anatomy & Physiology Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards based on Unit 1 lecture notes covering introductory anatomy, chemical foundations, metabolism, and cellular biology.

Atom

The smallest units of matter.

Molecule

Two or more atoms combined.

Macromolecule

Complex molecules such as DNA molecules.

Organelle

Specialized microscopic subunits in cells that help keep cells alive.

Cells

Smallest living structures and basic units of structure and function in organisms.

Tissue

A group of similar cells that perform common functions.

Organ

Two or more tissue types that work together for specific functions.

Organ system

Contains multiple related organs that work together to perform specific functions; 11 systems exist in the body.

Organism

The largest level of organization; the living person.

Integumentary System

Provides protection, regulates body temperature, and houses sensory receptors; includes hair, skin, and nails.

Skeletal System

Provides support, protection, and is the site of hematopoiesis (blood cell production).

Muscular System

Produces body movement and generates heat when muscles contract.

Nervous System

A regulatory system that responds to sensory stimuli and is responsible for consciousness, intelligence, and memory.

Endocrine System

Glands and cell clusters that secrete hormones to maintain homeostasis of blood composition and volume.

Cardiovascular System

Consists of the heart and blood vessels to distribute hormones, nutrients, and gases while picking up waste.

Lymphatic System

Transports and filters lymph and may participate in an immune response.

Respiratory System

Responsible for the exchange of gases ($O_2$ and $CO_2$) between blood and the air in the lungs.

Urinary System

Filters blood to remove waste products and expels waste in the form of urine.

Digestive System

Mechanically and chemically digests food, absorbs nutrients, and expels waste.

Homeostasis

The ability of an organism to maintain a consistent internal environment, or "steady state," in response to changing conditions.

Receptor

A structure that detects the stimulus/change in variable and sends a report to the control center.

Control center

Integrates input information from the receptor and initiates output from the effectors.

Effector

Takes the command from the control center and brings about change to alter the stimulus.

Negative feedback loop

The most common homeostatic mechanism; it reduces or shuts off the original stimulus by going in the opposite direction.

Positive feedback loop

A rare mechanism that enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus until it is interrupted (e.g., childbirth or blood clotting).

Anatomical position

The body is upright, facing forward, with feet flat and palms facing forward.

Anterior

In front of; toward the front.

Ventral

Toward the belly side of the human body.

Posterior

In the back of; toward the back.

Dorsal

Toward the back side of the human body.

Visceral layer

The serous membrane layer that covers the outside of organs.

Parietal layer

The serous membrane layer that lines cavity walls and does not touch the organs.

Mass number

$\text{protons} + \text{neutrons}$.

Isotope

Atoms of the same element with different weights or numbers of neutrons.

Octet rule

The principle that atoms are stable with 8 electrons in their outer ring.

Ionic bond

A weak chemical bond involving the TRANSFER of electrons between atoms that generates full charges.

Covalent bond

A strong chemical bond formed by the SHARING of electrons between atoms.

Polar covalent bond

A bond with UNEQUAL sharing of electrons, resulting in a partial charge.

Nonpolar covalent bond

A bond with EQUAL sharing of electrons and no partial charge.

Hydrogen bond

The weakest bond type, formed between a slightly positive Hydrogen and a slightly negative Oxygen or Nitrogen.

Cation

An ion formed by losing electrons, resulting in a positive charge.

Anion

An ion formed by gaining electrons, resulting in a negative charge.

Electronegativity

An element's ability to attract shared electrons toward itself within a chemical bond.

Cohesion

Molecules of the same substance sticking to one another by Hydrogen bonding.

Adhesion

Molecules of one substance sticking to molecules of another substance with a charge.

Acid

A proton donor that releases Hydrogen ions ($H^+$) in solution, resulting in a pH below 7.

Base

A proton acceptor that reduces Hydrogen ions ($H^+$) in solution, resulting in a pH above 7.

Buffer

Molecules that minimize changes in pH by accepting or donating $H^+$ as needed.

Dehydration synthesis

The process of forming a bond between two monomers by removing a water molecule.

Hydrolysis

The process of breaking down a polymer by adding a water molecule.

Monosaccharides

The subunits or monomers of carbohydrates.

Amino acids

The subunits or monomers of proteins.

Nucleotides

The subunits or monomers of nucleic acids.

Triglycerides

Lipids used for energy storage, composed of 3 fatty acid tails linked to glycerol.

Enzymes

Protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy without being consumed.

Potential energy

Stored energy due to position or structure, such as chemical energy in bonds.

Kinetic energy

The energy of motion, such as thermal energy.

Endergonic reaction

An anabolic reaction that consumes energy and results in products with more potential energy than reactants.

Exergonic reaction

A catabolic reaction that releases energy, where products have less potential energy than reactants.

Glycolysis

The first step of cellular respiration occurring in the cytoplasm, splitting glucose to produce a net of $2$ ATP.

Citric Acid Cycle

The second stage of cellular respiration in the mitochondria that requires oxygen and produces $2$ ATP and $CO_2$.

Electron Transport Chain

The final stage of cellular respiration occurring in the inner mitochondrial membrane, generating $30$ ATP.

Cellular Respiration Formula

$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{ATP}$.

Oxidation

The losing of electrons; happens to glucose during cellular respiration.

Reduction

The gaining of electrons; happens to oxygen during cellular respiration.

Selectively permeable

The property of the cell membrane that allows specific molecules to pass while blocking others.

Nucleolus

Located inside the nucleus; acts as the factory for ribosomes.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Network of membranes studded with ribosomes that acts as a factory and shipping hub for proteins.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Membrane network that lacks ribosomes; functions in detox, hormone production, and fat synthesis.

Lysosomes

Membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes for recycling worn-out organelles.

Passive Transport

Movement of molecules from high to low concentration without the use of ATP.

Active Transport

Movement of molecules from low to high concentration requiring cellular energy.

Osmosis

The natural movement of water through a semi-permeable membrane toward higher solute concentration.

Isotonic

A solution with the same solute and water concentration as the inside of the cell.

Hypertonic

A solution with a higher solute concentration than the cell, causing the cell to shrivel (crenate).

Hypotonic

A solution with a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing water to enter and the cell to explode (hemolysis).

Sodium-potassium pump

A transport protein that moves $3$ sodium ions out and $2$ potassium ions into the cell using ATP.

Somatic cells

Body cells that are diploid ($46$ chromosomes) and divide via mitosis.

Gametes

Reproductive sex cells that are haploid ($23$ chromosomes) and produced via meiosis.

DNA Replication

The process occurring in the S phase of interphase where the cell synthesizes an identical copy of its DNA.

Prophase

First phase of mitosis; chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane dissolves.

Metaphase

Phase of mitosis where chromosomes form a single line at the middle of the cell.

Anaphase

Phase of mitosis where sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite sides.

Telophase

Final phase of mitosis where chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear membrane reforms; a cleavage furrow is visible.

Transcription

The process of copying the genetic code from DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) within the nucleus.

Translation

The process where ribosomes read mRNA and translate it into a chain of amino acids to form a protein.