Anatomy 2 Practical 2

moves fresh air into body (O2) and removes waste gas (CO2)

what is the primary function of the respiratory system

ventilation: alveolar air sacs as they are the site of gas exchange between air and blood

what does the efficiency of gas exchange depend on

- diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract

what happens during inhalation

diaphragm relaces & intercostal muscles contract

what happens during forced or active exhalation

structural:

- upper respiratory tract

- lower respiratory tract

functional:

- conducting zone

- respiratory zone

what are the 2 structural regions of the respiratory system?

what are the 2 functional regions of the respiratory system

restrictive lung disease

- fibrous scar tissue

- destruction of alveoli

- low compliance (hard to inhale)

- "thick balloon" (hard to inflate)

what are 4 aspects of tuberculosis

regulates C02 concentration

hypoventilation: increases CO2: causes acidosis

hyperventilation: decreases CO2: causes alkalosis

how do the lungs regulate blood pH

maintain HCO3- levels

- decrease HCO3-: causes acidosis

- increases HCO3-: causes alkalosis

- hypoventilation increases CO2 (acidosis)

how do kidneys regulate blood pH

CO2 + H2O ⟷︎ H2CO3 ⟷︎ HCO3- + H+

what is the equation of the biocarbonate buffer system

Used to measure the amount of (volume) and/or speed (flow) of air that can be inhaled and exhaled

what is spirometry

- FEV1/FVC

FEV1: forced experiation volume in first second

FVC: Forced vital capacity

- can be used to detect for respiratory diseases

what is the spirometry equation

To correct for thermal drift and make sure volume readings are accurate.

Why do you need to zero the Spirometer Pod before recording?

start recording before the volunteer picks up the flow head.

When should you start recording during the volume correction procedure?

Normal, relaxed breathing (tidal breathing) for one minute.

What kind of breathing should the volunteer do during volume correction?

IRV - Inspiratory Reserve Volume: the extra air you can breathe in after a normal inhale

ERV: - Expiratory Reserve Volume: The extra air you can breathe out after a normal exhale

what are IRV and ERV

PIF: Peak Inspiratory flow: The fastest speed of air inhaled during a breath in

PEF: peak expiratory flow: The fastest speed of air exhaled during a breath out

What are PIF and PEF

right lung: 3 lobes

- superior, middle, and inferior

left lung: 2 lobes

- superior and inferior

What is the difference between the left and right lung

It causes bronchodilation to allow more air in during a "fight-or-flight" response.

What effect does sympathetic stimulation have on the lungs?

It causes bronchiole constriction to reduce air flow during a "rest-and-digest" response.

What effect does parasympathetic stimulation have on the lungs?

lobar: secondary

segmental: tertiary

what are segmental and lobar bronchi

horizontal: top

oblique: bottom

what are the 2 fissures of the right lung

A

Why are the right and left lungs slightly different in shape?

a) The left lung accommodates the position of the heart.

b) The right lung accommodates the position of the heart.

c) The right lung has more bronchioles.

1) trachea

2) primary bronchi

3) secondary bronchi

4) tertiary bronchi

5) bronchioles

6) terminal bronchioles

what is the order of the bronchiole tree (6)

A and D

Tuberculosis _____ of the lung.

Choose all that apply

A. Decrease the compliance.

B. Increase the compliance.

C. Increase the inspiratory volume.

D. Decrease the inspiratory volume.

B and D

Patients with emphysema have? Select all that apply.

A. Decreased compliance.

B. Increased compliance.

C. Strong external intercostal muscles.

D. Strong internal intercostal muscles

1) Check pH:

If pH < 7.35 → Acidosis

If pH > 7.35 → Alkalosis

Then check the cause:

Acidosis:

If HCO₃⁻ < 22 mEq/L → Metabolic Acidosis

If Pco₂ > 45 mmHg → Respiratory Acidosis

Alkalosis:

If HCO₃⁻ > 26 mEq/L → Metabolic Alkalosis

If Pco₂ < 35 mmHg → Respiratory Alkalosis

How do you determine the type of acid-base imbalance from a blood sample?

A

1st year graduate student anxious about their midterm performance begins tofeel lightheaded and tingling in their hands so he go to the clinic. A workup revealed: pH 7.48, PaCO2 30, HCO3- 23

A. Respiratory alkalosis

B. Respiratory acidosis

C. Metabolic alkalosis

D. Metabolic acidosis

E

An undergraduate student celebrated too much after a basketball game. After aweekend of atonement, his lab values are: pH 7.48, PaCO2 51, HCO3- 29

A. Respiratory alkalosis

B. Respiratory acidosis

C. Metabolic alkalosis

D. Metabolic acidosis

E. Metabolic alkalosis with partial Respiratory compensation

to determine the unknown concentration compared to known standards

x= glucose concentration

y = absorbance

what is the standard curve in lab 7 used for

No

- there is a relationship between the light absorbance of glucose solution and glucose concentration

can glucose concentration be directly measured? how to we get around this?

DNS: reacts with reducing sugars and forms a product that absorbs light at 540 nm

what do we use as a proxy for glucose in our assay? why?

must repeat the curve

R² = 1 → perfect fit (100% of the variation in the data is explained by the model)

R² = 0 → no fit (0% of the variation is explained by the model)

Values between 0 and 1 indicate how close the data points are to the regression line.

what happens if our R2 value is below 0.98

y = mx + b

x = (y-b)/m

what do x and y stand for in the glucose standard curve (equation)

A

Looking at the standard curve to theleft, what could you do to improve thefit of the curve?

A. Clean all test tubes with a Kim wipe

B. Remeasure the 20mM tube

C. Nothing, the fit is good

B

The student has already cleaned all the tes ttubes with a Kim wipe but the standard curve still not looks correct .Looking at the standard curve to the left, what could you do to improve the fit of the curve?

A. Clean all test tubes with a kim wipe again

B. Remeasure the 20mM tube

C. Nothing, the fit is good

liver, gallbladder, pancreas, salivary glands

what are the accessory organs of the digestive system

smallest: 2, 3, 1, 4 largest

order the structure of the GI tract from smallest to largest

1. pilcae circulares (circular folds)

2. microvilli

3. villi

4. rugae

Through secondary active transport using the Na⁺/glucose symporter (SGLT) at the apical membrane.

How does glucose enter the intestinal epithelial cell from the lumen?

A high extracellular Na⁺ concentration, maintained by the Na⁺/K⁺ pump

What drives the Na⁺/glucose symporter (SGLT)?

It uses ATP to pump 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in, maintaining the Na⁺ gradient (primary active transport).

What is the role of the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase in glucose transport?

Through facilitated diffusion via the GLUT2 transporter at the basal membrane.

How does glucose exit the epithelial cell into the blood?

Mammalian Ringer's + 15 mM glucose at 37°C (normal condition).

What solution is in Beaker #1?

- Cold Ringer's + 15 mM glucose (~4°C)

- Ringer's + 15 mM glucose + 0.1 mM DNP

- Low sodium Ringer's + 15 mM glucose

What are the possible conditions for Beaker #2?

To allow glucose to move from the mucosal (outside) to the serosal (inside) side of the sac.

Why are intestinal segments everted (turned inside out) in this lab?

Beaker #1: 37°C water bath

Beaker #2: Ice (cold) or 37°C (depending on condition)

What temperature should the beakers be kept at during the experiment?

A syringe with a plastic feeding tube, filled with Ringer's + 15 mM glucose.

What is used to fill the intestine?

It is filled with air, not solution—refill it.

What does it mean if the sac floats?

45 minutes.

How long should the sacs incubate?

To determine if glucose transport occurred by comparing glucose levels inside the sac to the initial solution.

What is the purpose of the glucose analysis in this lab?

Blank, Initial, Normal, and Treatment (Cold, DNP, or Low Na).

What four test tubes do you label for glucose analysis?

200 µl DNS reagent

400 µl dH₂O

What is added to each sample tube during glucose testing?

600 µl dH₂O

200 µl DNS reagent

What is added to the blank tube?

Boil them for 10 minutes, cool for 3 minutes, then add 5 ml of dH₂O and mix

What do you do after mixing each test tube?

Use a spectrophotometer to read absorbance at 540 nm, and calculate concentration using the standard curve.

How do you measure glucose concentration after boiling

Slows or decreases glucose entry into the cell.

How does cold temperature affect glucose transport?

- adventitia: connects esophagus to surrounding structures

- stratified squamous epithelium: protects against abrasion by food

mucus: protects the tissues from acid reflux and helps food to move down esophagus

what are the 3 features of the esophagus and what are their functions

upper: skeletal (voluntary)

middle: skeletal and smooth

lower: smooth (involuntary)

what are each of these made from

- upper esophagus

- middle esophagus

- lower esophagus

B

There is an abrupt transition of epithelium at the gastroesophageal junction. Which is the dominant epithelium of the esophageal mucosa where it meets the stomach?

a) Simple columnar epithelium

b) Stratified squamous epithelium

c) Transitional epithelium

monitor pathogens in the intestine and trigger the mucosal immune response

what is the function of aggregated lymph nodes (Peyer's patches) in the small intestine

secretes an alkaline fluid containing mucus and bicarbonate, which protects the mucosal surface and helps to neutralize acidic chyme

what is the function of duodenal glands (brunner's glands)

secretes alkaline fluid containing mucus and digestive enzymes

what is the function of intestinal glands in the small intestine

absorption, vitamin production, feces formation, movement, and storage

what is the function of the large intestine

last part of digestive tract, contains structures that control elimination

what is the function of the anal canal

stores feces before elimination

what is the function of the rectum

stores bile

what is the function of the gallbladder

secretes digestive enzymes (exocrine function) and hormones (endocrine function)

what is the function of the pancreas

processes nutrients and toxins found in the blood, stores glycogen, acts as a blood reservoir and makes bile

what is the function of the liver

C

How is a hepatic lobule structured?

a) Layers of acinar cells surrounding a central bile duct

b) Rings of hepatocytes arranged concentrically around a central bile duct

c) Stacked hepatocytes that radiate out from a central vein

A

Which is the function of the pancreatic acini?

a) Secrete digestive enzymes

b) Secrete insulin and glucagon

c) Store fat

15mM

What is the expected glucose concentration for the Initial (15 mM Glucose) sample?

Greater than 15 mM

- glucose is optimally transported into the sac

What is the expected result for Sac #1 37°C Normal? why?

less than normal sac, but still greater than 15 mM

- colder than optimal temperature slows down chemical reactions required for glucose transport

What is the expected result for sac #2 4 degrees cold? why?

less than normal sac but still greater than 15 mM

- DNP prevents production of ATP which leads to less primary active transport of glucose

what are the expected results for sac #3 37 degrees (normal) + DNP? why?

less than normal sac but still greater than 15nM

- lower Na+ means there is less secondary active transport of glucose

what are the expect results for sac #4 37 degrees (normal) + low Na+? why?

DNP destroys the proton gradient in mitochondria by acting as a proton ionophore, which prevents ATP production

- The Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase transporter is affected because it requires ATP to function.

What does DNP do, and which glucose transporter is affected?

A: carrier proteins become saturated

Which of the following graphs represents the rate of glucose transport in the small intestine

A: linear then tappers off

B: linear

a bacteria that can kill you by dehydrating you through diarrhea

what is cholera

1) activates cholera receptors

2) activates cAMP pathway

3) ion loss of Cl and NA which result in water loss

what are the 3 steps of the cholera bactera

glucose rich solution

- glu and na are transported into cell via SGLT 1

what is used to rehydrate after cholera

There would be no change under any condition, because fructose is transported by facilitated diffusion, which depends solely on the concentration gradient. With equal concentrations inside and outside (15 mM), no net movement occurs

What would happen if fructose was used instead of glucose in the intestinal sac experiment?

- volume

- pH

- specific gravity

- chloride level

what do we test in for the human urine samples

- pH

- specific gravity

- glucose

- protein

- ketone levels

what do we test for on artificial urine samples

filtration, reabsorption, and secretion

3 main functions of the kidney

all substances are filtered except cells and large proteins

- renal corpuscle

what is filtration and where does it occur

the body will then reabsorb what it whats

what happens after filtration

occurs in the proximal tubule

- filtrate will travel back to the blood

where does reabsorption occur and where does the fluid travel after

99%

____% of filtrate gets reabsorbed

moving from blood into the tubules

- substances that are secreted are eliminated from the body through urine

ex: NH3-, H+, PAH and foreign compounds are secreted

what is secretion? what happens to things that are secreted

to observe how a sports drink affects urine production

What is the purpose of Part 1 of the urinalysis lab with a human sample?

Volume, pH, specific gravity, and chloride (NaCl) levels.

What tests are done in Part 1 on both urine samples?

To help diagnose four different patients based on urine test results.

What is the purpose of Part 2 of the urinalysis lab with artificial urine?

- pH (pH paper),

- specific gravity (refractometer),

- glucose (Benedict's),

- protein (Exton's),

- ketone (Rothera's).

What tests are run in Part 2 of the urinalysis lab?

-Chronic nephritis

- diabetes mellitus,

- hypothermia,

- prolonged fever with high vitamin C intake.

What are the possible pathologies for the artificial urine samples?

Transfer pipettes are used for both human and artificial urine.

What type of pipette is used for Chloride (NaCl) and Specific Gravity tests?

Transfer pipettes for artificial urine, serological pipettes for Benedict's reagent.

What pipettes are used for the Glucose test?

Serological pipettes for both artificial urine and Exton's reagent.

What pipettes are used for the Protein test?

Serological pipettes for artificial urine. Use 1 mL serological with ammonium hydroxide in the fume hood.

What pipettes are used for the Ketone test?

Pressure-driven bulk flow of protein-free plasma from glomerular capillaries into the nephron.

What is filtration in the nephron?

Active and passive transport of materials like vitamins, amino acids, and glucose from the filtrate back into the blood.

What is reabsorption in the nephron?

Active transport of materials like H⁺ and K⁺ into the tubule for excretion.

What is secretion in the nephron?