E5: Stalinism, politics and control, 1929–1941

What features of state terror already existed under Lenin?

The secret police, the Cheka, was established in 1917. The OGPU also oversaw security functions from 1922-34.

Explain how early chistki (purges) worked.

They were usually done to centralise power amongst the high ranking members of the party. Often, party members would often have to renew their membership cards and documents, where failure to comply with the updated certification would lose their membership within the party. Those who were purged from the party would be denied updated documents, removing them from the party.

How were the early purges different from the later purges under Stalin?

Violence was never used against other Bolsheviks.

How did Stalin make use of terror during his rise to power?

He utilised show trials in order to purge those he no longer trusted within the party, or those who protested against his decisions, such as the 1928 Shakty trial, where miners from the Shakty coal mine questioned the rapid rate of industrialisation and were all found guilty, and the 1932 show trial, where Mensheviks and SRs were prosecuted and found guilty and sentenced to labour camps. He utilised collectivisation in order to destroy the kulaks and force the peasants into submission.

Why did ordinary Russians join the Communist Party in the 1930s?

They gained access to larger rations and scarce consumer goods. Additionally, some gained individual power over their own local communities.

What rights were enshrined in the Stalin Constitution of 1936?

The freedom of speech and press, and the right to be free from arbitrary arrest, alongside the right to free elections. However, none of these rights were enforced, and the only individuals who could be elected were Communists, ensuring the one-party state.

Why was the Communist Party unpopular in Russia by 1933?

The continuation of rapid industrialisation had created tension between the workers and the party. Collectivisation had also destroyed the reputation between the party and the peasants.

What were the circumstances of Nadezda Allilueva’s suicide in 1932?

She had an argument with Stalin, where he was reported to have been exceptionally rude to her. Shortly after, she shot herself. She also agreed with Bukharin that collectivisation had gone too far.

What was the impact of Nadezda’s suicide on Stalin.

He became more paranoid, and less likely to trust those around him.

What did the Ryutin Platform call for?

The removal of Stalin, calling him ‘the evil genius of the Russian revolution’. He was not executed due to opposition from Kirov and the Central Committee.

How were Kamenev and Zinoviev affected by the Ryutin Platform in 1932?

They were expelled from the party for their failure to report the existence of the document.

Why was the Seventeenth Party Congress in 1934 called the ‘Congress of Victors’?

There was a feeling amongst the Central Committee that the party had succeeded in laying down the groundwork for the future of Socialism. However, Stalin wished to continue with rapid industrialisation and collectivisation, which Kirov opposed, with him receiving as many honours as Stalin for it.

How were party roles reorganised at the Seventeenth Party Congress?

Both Kirov and Stalin were given the role of the “Secretary of Equal Rank”, showing that Kirov rivalled his power.

What were the circumstances of Sergei Kirov’s murder in 1934?

He entered the Leningrad party headquarters, where all bodyguards were completely absent. After passing the bathroom, an assassin hiding within leapt out and shot Kirov in the neck, before fainting beside his body.

On what grounds were Communist party members purged in the immediate aftermath of Kirov’s murder?

Several NKVD members were accused of negligence pertaining to their absence at the Leningrad party headquarters, and were sentenced to labour camps. Yagoda was accused of causing their absence intentionally to have Kirov killed. He was found guilty at the 1938 show trial and executed alongside Bukharin and Rykov.

How were Kamenev and Zinoviev affected by the murder of Kirov in 1934?

They were pulled out of prison and were put on a show trial in 1936 in order to profess guilty for organising Kirov’s murder.

Who were the lead defendants in the third great show trial of March 1938?

Bukharin, Rykov, and Yagoda, Bukharin was notable for defending himself heavily, but he was still sentenced to death alongside all others.

Describe the circumstances of Sergei Ordzhonikidze’s death.

He argued with Stalin in 1937 about the extent of which the purges had gone to, pleading for an end to the terror. Shortly after, Stalin gave him the choice of suicide with a state funeral, or being executed with no funeral. He chose the former, and Stalin asked for his death to be reported as heart failure.

What was the resolution condemning ‘Anti-Soviet Elements’ in Russian society passed by the Politburo in July 1937?

A list of elements was elaborated on by Yezhov, including scientists, writers, and artists.

How were ordinary people encouraged to denounce ‘enemies’?

They saw it as an opportunity to remove people that they were displeased with, and as a way to take their job positions if they had a better job than they did.

What was the process by which each arrest led to dozens more?

Relatives of the prosecuted would often be prosecuted alongside them, including friends and family members. The friends and family of the newly prosecuted could then be prosecuted themselves, leading to dozens of arrests for a single person.

Why were confessions seen as important by the NKVD and wider Soviet regime?

They were seen as proof that the state was right, legitimising the arrests.

Describe the circumstances of Trotsky’s death in 1940.

In 1940, he was fired at while in his home in Mexico. Later that year, an assassin posing as an admirer was allowed entry into his house, where he was able to reach his study and drive an ice pick into his head. Trotsky, soon died of his injuries.

Why did the purges slow down after 1938?

The removal of numerous individuals in administrative positions of power was rapidly destabilising Russian society, such as a factory managers' position being taken by an ordinary worker who denounced them who was not suitable for the managerial position. Stalin blamed Yezhov for the sheer excesses of the terror.

Summarise the “totalitarian” and “revisionist” arguments for the terror.

The totalitarian argument states that Stalin was wholly, if not almost entirely responsible for the majority of purges within the party, acting as the mastermind behind the Great Terror. The revisionist argument states that although Stalin absolutely utilised the Terror as a means to purge those he did not trust within the party, the majority of purges were done via denunciations by lower ranking members of factories and the party, and that Stalin only got the ball rolling.

What qualities was the archetypal ‘new Soviet man’ supposed to have?

The morality, values and characteristics of a good Soviet citizen, a willing servant of the state and placing the revolution before himself.

What happened to the Comintern under Stalin?

Their purpose was changed after Stalin's "left turn". They would now attack other foreign social democrat parties instead of cooperating with them, labelling them as "social fascists" for cooperating with governments, making them appear as "bourgeois". Their attacking of the German social democrats lessened Hitler's opposition in his rise to power.

What were the two sides in the Spanish Civil War that began in 1936?

In 1936, right wing officers launched a nationalist rebellion against the Spanish Republic government. Stalin sent forces to aid the rebels, but eventually changed his policy to have the rebels prolong the war in order to wear down Italian and German forces sent into Spain.

Give examples of actions by Britain and France in the lead up to 1939 that alienated the USSR.

They did not invite the USSR to the 1938 Munich conference, even though the USSR was relevant due to Czechoslovakia being involved, whom the USSR had a peace treaty with. Additionally, they walked out on the 1939 triple alliance conference organised by Litvinov.

Give examples of actions by Germany in the lead up to 1939 that appealed to the USSR.

An agreement with Germany would prevent the USSR from fighting a war with the allies, which would prevent a war on two fronts with Japan if they ever were to invade. The Germans also agreed to give half of Poland to the Soviets, including control over the Baltic states.