Research Methods

what are the limitations of a matched pairs design?

Matching participants is difficult and time consuming.

How can reliability be improved?

Pilot studies, taking more than one measurement and standardising measurement

What is an aim?

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate

What is a hypothesis?

A clear testable statement that states the relationship between two variables

What are the four types of hypothesis?

Directional, Non directional, Experimental Hypothesis, Null

What is a directional hypotheis

A hypothesis states the the direction that is anticipated from the two groups

When are directional hypothesis used?

When there is previous research into that field

What is a non directional hypothesis?

just simply states there is a difference, there is no direction expected.

When do we use a non directional hypothesis?

When there is no previous research or research is conflicting.

What is operationalisation?

Operationalisation is breaking down a concept into something objective and observable/measurable.

What is an extraneous variable?

An extraneous variable is any variable other than the independent variable that might affect the dependent variable. This could lead to invalid conclusions being drawn about the effect of the IV on the DV. Researchers will try to control and eliminate extraneous variables.

What is a confounding variable?

A confounding variable is any extraneous variable that was not eliminated during research design or controlled during data collection and that has had an impact on the dependent variable, (data collected). This can make it difficult to draw accurate conclusions as it raises uncertainty about whether any of the effect observed in the dependent variable is due to the independent variable.

What are demand characteristics?

These occur when participants pick up cues from the researcher or information about the study and try to guess what the researcher is looking for, as a result of which, their behaviour changes.

How can demand characteristics be prevented?

Some researchers attempt to deal with demand characteristics by using minor deception or by using double blind controls.

What are investigator effects?

Any effect of the investigators behaviour (unconcious or conscious) that impacts the DV (research outcome)

What is randomisation?

THe use of chance in order to comtrol for the effect of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.

What is standardisation?

All participants should experience the same thing. To ensure this procedures are standardised such as instructions that are read to p's

What is experimental design?

The way participants are used in experiments

Whats an independent group design?

An independant groups design is when two seperate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment.

What are the strengths of an independent groups design?

A strength is that order effects are not a problem since they are not repeating any conditions.

What are the limitations of an independent groups design?

Participant variables- the p's who occupy the different groups are not the same. If the researcher finds a difference between the groups on the DV this may be more to do with the individual differences rather than the IV.

What is a repeated measures design?

Particpants experience both conditions of the IV.

What are the limitations of a repeated measures design?

Order effects- experiencing both conditions could create boredom/fatigue which could make the perform worse on the second task or it could improve.

More likely that the p's will work out the aim of the study when they experience both conditions of the IV. Demand characteristics may be more prevalent in this design.

What are the strengths of a repeated measures design?

Participant variables are controlled and fewer participants are needed.

What is a matched pairs design?

Participants are matched on some variable that will affect the DV. Then one is to condition A than other to condition B.

What are the strengths of a matched pairs design?

No order effects, Participant only experiences one condition.- also reduced demand characteristics

How are order effects controlled?

counterbalancing- ABBA. Half p's experience A then B, other half B than A

What is a laboratory experiment?

conucted in a highly controlled environment

What is a strength of laboratory experiment?

High levels of controls- means we can establish cause and effect which means high internal validity.

Easily replicated- high replicability means we can have high reliability

What are limitations of a lab experiment?

Lack generalisability- environment may be artificial and not like everyday life. In unfamiliar setting p's may behave not naturally so behaviour cant be generalised outisde of experiment- low internal validity.

P's are usually aware they are being tested in an experiment and this may make them more likely to conform to demand charateristics or evaluation apprehension.

Tasks p's are asked to carry out may not represent real life and lack mundane realism.

What is a field experiment?

An experiment which takes place in a natural setting.

What is a strength of Field experiments

High ecological validity as its in a more natural environment, IV manipulated by the researcher.

What is a limitation of field experiments?

Can't control extraneous variables- means cause and effect between IV and DV is harder to establich and precise replication is often not possible.

Ethical issues- P's often dont know theyre being studied they can't give informed consent and dont have the right to withdraw.

What is a natural experiment?

Researcher takes advantage of a pre existing IV, IV is naturally occuring. E.G cancer patients.

What is a strength of natural experiments?

Provide opportunities for research that may not be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons like studying cancer patients.

High external validity as theye involve the study of real life issues and problems e.g impact of natural disasters on stress levels.

Whats a limitation of a natural experiment?

Naturally occuring event happens very rarely reducing opportutinies for research and limits scope for generalising findings to other situations.

P's may not be randomly allocated to conditions, meaning less sure wether IV affected DV due to other confounding variables.

What is a quasi experiment?

Have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people like age and gender.

What is a strength of a quasi experiment?

Often carried out under controlled conditions like a lab- shares same strengths and limitations.

What is a limitatin of a quasi experiment?

Can't randomly allocate p's to conditins and therefore may have confounding variables

What is a population?

The group of people that the researcher is intereseted in studying. OFten called the target population

What is a sample?

The group of people which take part in the study. Sample is drawn from the target population and is presumed to be representative of the population

What is a random sample and how would you carry one out?

All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

Firstly, completed list of target population is obtained. Then all names on the list are assigned a number. Then number generator used to select the participants.

What is a strength of a random sample?

Free from researcher bias-researcher has no influence over who is chosen as its down to chance and this prevents them from picking people who they think may support their hypothesis.

Usually more representative than alternatives e.g volunteer as there is chance

What is a limitation of a random sample?

Sample potentially could still be unrepresentative e.g accidentally get all year ones by chance ans is not representative of TP

What is a systematic sample and how do you conduct one?

A systematic sample when evry nth member of TP is selected, e.g every 3rd pupil on a school register.

Sampling frame is produced which is a list of people in the TP organised e.g. alphabetically. A sampling system is nominated e.g every 3rd, 6th or 7th person or this sample is done randomly. Researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is complete.

What is a strength of a systematic sample?

Avoids researcher bias- once sampling system has been made the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.

Quick, easy and cost effective

What is a limitation of a systematic sample?

Not everyone has an equal chance of being picked- therefore can be unrepresentative

What is a stratified sample and how would you conduct one?

composition of sample reflects the proportions of strata (sub groups) within the TP (e.g men and women)

Researcher first identifies the strata that make up the population. Then proportions needed for sample to be ,ade are worked out e.g 40% women, 60% males. Finally p's that make up each strata are selected through random sampling.

What are the strengths of a stratified sample?

Representative- as based on exact proportions of the TP- easy to generalise data from sample to wider population

No researcher bias

What are limitations of a stratified sample?

identified strata cannot reflect all ways people are different so complete representation isnt possible

Really time consuming and difficult to match proportions of all relevant strata

What is an opportunity sample and how would you carry one out?

Select anyone that is willing and available

E.G walk up to a person in the street.

What is a strength of opportunity sampling?

Easier way of gaining a sample- time efficient

What is a limitation of opportunity sampling?

Sample is unrepresentative of TP as its drawn from a specific area so findings cant be generalised to TP

Researcher bias- researcher has complete control over selection of participants and may avoid people who may not meet their hypothesis.

What is a volunteer sample and how would you conduct one?

Participants selecting themselves to be part of the research.

E.G putting an advertisement in a newspaper or on a notice board.

what is a strength of a volunteer sample?

Easier to get ppts as they self select

as they are interested in the topic, high motivation to take tasks seriously and less likely to drop out.

No researcher bias- researcher hasn't picked sample

What is a limitation of volunteer sampling?

Unrepresentative of the target population because only usually a certain type of person will volunteer e.g. extroverted person.

what is informed consent?

prospective participants should know what they are getting into before they participate in the study. They should know the true aim of the study, the procedure, their rights and what their data will be used for.

How do you gain informed consent?

P's should be issued a consent letter detailing all the relevant information that might impact their decision to take part, if they agree its signed. For p's under sixteen they will gain consent from carer.

What is presumptive consent?

rather than getting consent from the participant themself, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceprable. If they agree then consent of the original p is presumed.

What is prior general consent?

p's give their permission to take parrt in a number of different studies including one that would involve deception. By consenting, p's are effectively consenting to be decieved.

What is retrospective consent?

P's are asked for their consent during debreifing after already taking part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception.

What is deception?

Deliberatley misleading or witholding information from participants at any part of the study.

How do you deal with deception?

P's should be given a full debrief- should know the true aim of the study and any details they were not told during the study. Also told what their data will be used for and must be given the right to withdraw. If subjected to extreme stress, provide counselling.

What is protection from harm?

p's should not be placed at any more risk than they would in their daily lives and should be protected from physocal and psychological harm.

How do you deal with protection from harm?

Debrief as mentioned before.

What is privacy and confidentiality?

P's have the right to control information about themselves. Confidentiality refers to have any personal data protected. The right of privacy extends to where the study took place, geographical location and names hidden.

How do you deal with confidentiality?

Personal details are protected. Maintain anonymity. Usually refer to p's by number or initials when writing up investigation. P's reminded at start and end of study that their data will be protected throughout the process.

What is a pilot study?

A small scale investigation that takes placce before the real investigation.

What is the purpose of a pilot study?

To check that procedures, materials, measuring scales ect all work and allows the researcher to change anything.

E.G. In a questionnare changing any questions that are ambiguous or confusing. In an observation changing any behavioural categories.

What is a single blind procedure?

The participant doesnt know the aim of the study and attempts to control the confounding effects of demand characteristics.

What is a double blind procedure?

neither the participant nor the researcher know the aim of the study. Often used in drug trials.

What is a naturalistic observation?

Take place in the setting/context where the target behaviour usually occurs

What are the strengths of a naturalistic observation?

High external validity- findings can often be generalised to everyday life as behaviour is studied where it would naturally occur.

What are the limitations of a naturalistic observation?

Lack of control over the situation makes it hard to replicate. May also be uncontrolled EV's that may make it more difficult to judge a pattern of behaviour.

What is a controlled observation?

Watching and recording behaviour in a controlled environment.

What are the strengths of a controlled observation?

Control over extraneous variables

What are the limitations of a controlled observation?

May produce findings that are difficult to generalise to real life

What is a covert observation?

P's are unaware they are the focus of teh study and are observed without their knowledge.

What is a strength of a covert observation?

removes participant reactivity and ensures that they are behaving naturally- increasing validity of the data.

What is a limitation of a covert observation?

Ethics- p's are not aware they are being watched meaning they have not given consent themselves.

What is an overt observation?

P's know theyre being observed and have given their informed consent beforehand.

What is a strength of overt observations?

More ethically acceptable as they have given their consent.

What is a limitation of overt observations?

P's are aware theyre being observed- may conform to demand characteristics.

What is a participant observation?

Researcher is a member of the group they are studying

What is a strength of participant observations?

Researcher experiences the same situation that the participants do- giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being studied which may increase the validity of findings.

What is a limitation of participant observations?

Danger that the researcher may identifiy too closely with the group they are studying and lose objectivity- sometimes refferd to as 'going native' as the line between researcher and participant is blurred.

What is a non participant observation?

Researcher remains separate from the group they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner.

What is a a strength of non participant observations?

Allows the researcher to have an objective psychological distance from their participants so their is less risk of them getting too involvede.

What is a limitation of a non participant observation?

May lose valuable insight into behaviour as they are too far removed from the people they are studying.

What are behavioural catergories?

When a target behaviour is operationalised into something objective and measurable. They should not overlap and not require interpretation

What is event sampling?

Counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in the group.

What is a strength of event sampling?

No target behaviours missed

What is a limitation of event sampling?

Observer can become tired and miss key behaviour.

What is time sampling?

recording behaviour in a pre-established time frame. E.G recording behaviour every minute.

What is a strength of time sampling?

reduces the number of observations needing to be made

What is a limitation of time sampling?

Could miss key behaviours- making it unrepresentative.

What is a questionnare?

A set of written questions used to asses a persons thoughts/experiences

What are the strengths of a questionnare?

cost effective. They can gather large amounts of data quickly as they can be distributed to a large amount of people .

Can also be done without the researcher present- increases likelyhood of being answered more truthfully.

What are the limitations of a questionnare?

Responses given may not always be truthful. People may be keen to present themselves in a positive light and conform to social desirabilty bias.

What is an open question?

Does not have a fixed answer and participants can respond however they like. Tend to produce qualitative data and are rich in detail but may be hard to analyse.