Human anatomy exam 3 final review

Cardiovascular system

Body system that circulates blood to deliver oxygen

Heart

Muscular organ that pumps blood through pulmonary and systemic circulation

Epicardium

Outer heart layer that reduces friction via pericardial fluid

Myocardium

Thick cardiac muscle layer responsible for pumping blood

Endocardium

Inner heart lining that covers valves and prevents clotting

Pulmonary circulation

Heart to lungs to heart for oxygenation

Systemic circulation

Heart to body to heart for oxygen delivery

SA node

Primary pacemaker that initiates heartbeat

AV node

Delays electrical signal before ventricles contract

Bundle of His

Conducts electrical impulses from AV node to ventricles

Purkinje fibers

Distribute electrical signals through ventricles for contraction

Arteries

Vessels that carry blood away from the heart under high pressure

Arterioles

Small arteries that control blood pressure via vasoconstriction/dilation

Capillaries

Microscopic vessels where gas and nutrient exchange occurs

Venules

Vessels that drain blood from capillaries to veins

Veins

Vessels that return blood to heart under low pressure

Veins function

Contain valves and rely on skeletal muscle for blood return

Capillary wall

Single endothelial cell layer for exchange

Tunica intima

Inner vessel layer made of endothelium

Tunica media

Middle layer controlling vasoconstriction and vasodilation

Tunica externa

Outer connective tissue layer anchoring vessels

Hypertension

High blood pressure that damages arteries and organs

Hypotension

Low blood pressure causing dizziness and organ underperfusion

Systolic pressure

Arterial pressure during ventricular contraction

Diastolic pressure

Arterial pressure during ventricular relaxation

Primary hypertension

Hypertension caused by genetics and lifestyle factors

Secondary hypertension

Hypertension caused by underlying disease or medications

Hypertension risk factors

Age

Stroke (ischemic)

Blood clot blocks blood flow to brain

Stroke (hemorrhagic)

Bleeding in brain due to ruptured vessel

Bone system

Body framework providing support

Ossification

Process of bone formation and development

Intramembranous ossification

Bone forms directly from connective tissue (flat bones)

Endochondral ossification

Bone forms by replacing cartilage model (long bones)

Osteoblasts

Cells that build new bone matrix

Osteoclasts

Cells that break down bone tissue

Osteocytes

Mature bone cells that maintain bone tissue

Osteogenic cells

Stem cells that develop into osteoblasts

Periosteum

Outer bone covering that aids growth and repair

Dentine

Main structural tissue of teeth beneath enamel

Bone remodeling

Continuous process of bone breakdown and rebuilding

Syphilis

Infection caused by Treponema pallidum bacteria

Treponema pallidum

Bacteria that causes syphilis infection

Venereal syphilis

Sexually transmitted syphilis through mucosal contact

Nonvenereal syphilis

Endemic syphilis spread through skin or oral contact

Congenital syphilis

Passed from mother to fetus during pregnancy

Primary syphilis

Stage with painless sore (chancre) at infection site

Secondary syphilis

Stage with rash

Tertiary syphilis

Chronic stage causing organ and bone destruction

Gummas

Granulomatous lesions that destroy tissue in tertiary syphilis

Saber shin

Anterior bowing of tibia due to bone damage

Hutchinson incisors

Abnormal upper incisors in congenital syphilis

Moon molars

Defective molars caused by congenital infection

Enamel hypoplasia

Defective enamel formation causing pits and grooves

Periosteal reaction

New bone formation due to inflammation or infection

Immune system

Body defense system against pathogens and disease

Innate immunity

Nonspecific first-line defense like skin and mucosa

Adaptive immunity

Specific immune response using B and T cells

Lymphatic system

Network of vessels and organs that manages fluid and immunity

Thymus

Organ where T cells mature

Spleen

Filters blood and removes old red blood cells

Lymph nodes

Filter lymph and trap pathogens

Bone marrow

Site of blood cell production

T cells

White blood cells that coordinate immune response

B cells

Cells that produce antibodies

Antibodies

Proteins that bind to specific antigens

IgG

Most abundant antibody and crosses placenta

IgA

Found in mucosal areas like saliva and tears

IgM

First antibody produced during infection

IgE

Involved in allergies and parasitic responses

IgD

B cell receptor antibody

Memory cells

Long-lived immune cells that remember pathogens

Endocrine system

Network of glands that regulate body functions via hormones

Hormones

Chemical messengers that regulate body processes

Steroid hormones

Lipid-soluble hormones derived from cholesterol

Peptide hormones

Water-soluble hormones made of amino acids

Pituitary gland

Master gland controlling other endocrine glands

Anterior pituitary

Produces FSH

Posterior pituitary

Stores and releases oxytocin and ADH

Thyroid gland

Regulates metabolism via T3 and T4

Parathyroid glands

Control blood calcium levels

Adrenal glands

Produce cortisol and stress hormones

Pancreas

Produces insulin and glucagon

HPG axis

Regulates reproduction via hypothalamus

FSH

Stimulates gamete production

LH

Triggers ovulation and testosterone production

Nervous system

Body system that controls communication and coordination

Cerebrum

Responsible for thinking

Cerebellum

Controls balance and coordination

Brain stem

Controls breathing

Diencephalon

Includes hypothalamus and thalamus regulating homeostasis

Astrocytes

Support neurons and maintain blood-brain barrier

Oligodendrocytes

Produce myelin in CNS

Microglia

Immune cells of the brain that remove debris

Ependymal cells

Produce cerebrospinal fluid

Amyloid beta

Protein that forms plaques in Alzheimer’s disease

Parkinson disease

Neurodegenerative disease caused by dopamine loss

Alzheimer disease

Brain disorder causing memory loss and brain atrophy

Ventricles

Fluid-filled spaces in brain containing cerebrospinal fluid

Cranial nerves

Nerves emerging directly from brain controlling sensory and motor function