bio 4 fuck my chud life

Central Dogma of Bio

DNA=RNA=protiens

DNA holds genetic “directions”.

DNA directs the production of mRNA.

mRNA (with the help of other RNAs) directs the

production of proteins.

DNA

double stranded

contains thymine

contain deoxyribose

RNA

single stranded

contains uracil

contains ribose

Expiriments leading to DNA

Griffiths transformation

avery macleod

hershey-chase blender

Griffiths expiriment

trnafer of genetic information from dead viral bacteria to live, harmless ones

Avery - MacLeod - McCarty Experiment

demonstrated that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material that dictates heredity. By systematically destroying different cellular components in heat-killed bacteria,

Hershey and Chase Experiment

Proved that DNA is genetic material using radioactive isotropes

structure of a nucleotide

Phosphate, Sugar, Nitrogen Base

complementary base pairs

the specific, locked-in pairings of nitrogenous bases that hold the two strands of a DNA or RNA double helix together.

antiparell

two biopolymer strands that run parallel to each other but point in opposite chemical directions.

semi conservative replication

when DNA duplicates its self by unwinding the double helix into two strands and using each stand as a template for the new one

replication enzymes

Helicase, DNA, Polymerase, Primase, and ligase

Helicase enzyme purpose

unzips double stranded DNA or RNA into single strands

polymerase enzyme purpose

after DNA is unzipped, this enzyme reads the strand and pairs it with its complementary base

primase enzyme purpose

synthesizes the sequences called primers and beings the last stage of DNA synthesis

ligase enzyme purpose

the glue of DNA replication, binds segments of dna into one strand

Polymerase chain reaction

making DNA copies

PCR steps

1. Heating

- 2. Separate DNA

- 3. Primers

- 4. Taq Polymerase

Short Tandem Repeat (STR)

epeating sequences of 2 to 6 base pairs of DNA used in DNA profiling

Gel Electrophoresis

a laboratory technique used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA, or proteins based on their molecular size and charge. Samples are loaded into a porous gel and an electric current is applied, pulling the molecules through the gel at different speeds

Transcription

creates a molecule of RNA from a molecule of DNA

DNA bases

A, C, G, T

RNA bases

A, C, G, U

( DNA into RNA) A, T, G, A, C, T

U, A, C, U, G, A,

What is a mutation

Any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

what is a point mutation

the change of a single nucleotide

what are the three types of point mutations

silent, missense, nonsense

What is a frameshift mutation

a mutation due to the addition or deletion of a nucleotide, can result in different of defective proteins

deletion chromosomal mutation

when a piece of the chromosome is lost to its homologous chromosome during meiosis

duplication chromosome mutation

when a piece of the chromosome remains attached to its homologous chromosome after

inversion chromosomal mutation

when a piece of the chromosome remains attached to its homologous chromosome after

inversion chromosomal mutation

when a piece reattaches to its original chromosome, but in a reverse direction

translocation chromosomal mutation

when a chromosome piece ends up in a completely different, nonhomologous

nondisjunction chrosomal mutation

when chromosomes do not divide correctly during anaphase of meiosis

what is genetic engineering

manipulating DNA for practical purposes

Restriction enzymes

proteins that

cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences.

cutting and pasting DNA

Cut DNA from two organisms with

the same restriction enzyme and get

complementary “sticky ends”.

Gene therapy

healthy gene is given a bacteria then put into a sick person, they are then infected, and transfers the proper gene to an individual

Charles Darwin

write the origins of species and introduced the concept of evolution

where do fossila appear?

In sedemtary rock, which appears in layers or strata

uniformism

James Hutton and Charles Lyell’s proposition that

the mechanisms of change are constant over time

adaptation

Galápagos finches

natural selection

Individuals with certain heritable traits survive and

reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals

descent with modifications

through descent

from an ancestor that lived in the

remote past

biogeography

the study of where

organism live now and where they and

their ancestors lived in the past

genetic drift

any change in allele

frequency that results by chance

founder effect

occurs when a small

sample of a population leaves and

settles in a location separated from the

rest of the population.

bottleneck effect

occurs when a population

declines to a low number and then

rebounds. When the population

declines many alleles are lost, so when

the population grows again there are

not as many alleles to choose from as

before

gene flow

individual are able

to migrate into or emigrate

out of a population

analogous structures

same function different structures, do not share a common ancestor

allopatric

when a physical

barrier divides one

population into two or

more population

sympatric

speciation without a physical barrier

reproductive isolation

a state in which a population can no longer interbreed with other population to

produce future generations

behaviorial isolation

Members of a

species often identify each other

through specific rituals.

mating time differences

Many

species are able to reproduce only at

specific

times.

Habitat isolation

If species live in slightly

different habitats, they may

never meet.

Mechanical incompatibility

Members of different species

often cannot mate because their

anatomies are incompatible.

Gametic incompatibility

The gametes (sperm and egg

of different species usually

cannot fertilize each other.

Hybrid weakness

Offspring of two species

may be unfit, or they may

be sterile.

Gradualism:

when

evolution

occurs in slow

gradual steps

Punctuated

Equilibrium:

evolution

occurs in

abrupt

transitions