Federal Courts and the Judicial Branch: Structure, Functions, and Key Cases

jurisdiction

the authority to hear and decide a case

exclusive jurisdiction

the sole right to hear a case

concurrent jurisdiction

when both state courts and federal courts have the right to hear a case

plaintiff

the person making a legal complaint

defendant

the person against whom a legal complaint is filed

original jurisdiction

a court's right to have heard a case simply because it was the first court to hear it

appellate jurisdiction

a court's right to hear a case once it has been appealed from a lower court

judicial restraint

the concept that a judge should interpret the Constitution according to the Framers' original intention

judicial activism

the concept that judges can adapt the meaning of the Constitution to contemporary realities

precedent

previous court rulings on a given legal question

senatorial courtesy

tradition in which a senator from the same state as a judicial nominee and from the same political party as the president can block the nominee and expect no opposition from other senators

three functions of courts

identify if a law has been broken, decide how to provide relief to those harmed, determine the meaning of a specific law or part of the Constitution

Judiciary Act of 1789

set up a three-tiered federal court structure

district courts

the 94 courts on the lowest level with original jurisdiction over almost all federal criminal and civil cases

courts of appeals

the middle level of the federal court system that hears appeals from lower courts and certain federal agencies

Supreme Court

the top tier of the federal court system that mainly acts as the ultimate appellate court in the United States

judicial independence

the freedom to rule without fear of political retaliation

checks and balances

the system where the judicial branch checks the legislative and executive branches through judicial review

power to impeach

the ability of the other branches to remove judges

appointment process of judges

the method by which judges are nominated and confirmed

amendment process

the procedure by which changes can be made to the Constitution

legal expertise

a factor presidents consider when nominating federal judges

party affiliation

the political party a nominee is associated with, often influencing presidential nominations

judicial philosophy

the approach a judge takes in interpreting the law and Constitution

strict interpretation

a judicial philosophy that aligns with judicial restraint

contemporary realities

the current societal context that may influence judicial activism

number of Supreme Court justices

nine, including the chief justice

cases reviewed by the Supreme Court annually

about 80 cases involving the Constitution or federal law

grand juries

Panels of citizens that hear evidence of a possible crime and recommend whether the evidence is sufficient to file criminal charges.

bankruptcy

A legal process by which citizens who cannot pay money they owe others can receive court protection and assistance in settling their financial problems.

magistrate judges

District-court officials who are appointed for eight years and hear some of the early hearings of criminal trials as well as some misdemeanor and civil cases.

misdemeanor

A minor criminal case punishable by one year or less of prison time.

public defenders

Lawyers provided to defendants who cannot afford to hire a lawyer.

marshals

Officials who provide security and police protection at federal courthouses.

appellant

A person who files an appeal to have their case reviewed by a court of appeals.

briefs

Written arguments.

sovereign immunity

Principle that a sovereign nation is immune from being sued unless it agrees to be sued.

courts-martial

Hearings held by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces to decide cases involving violation of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.

federal district courts

The 94 district courts each have between two and 44 judges and hear over 400,000 cases a year.

U.S. attorneys

Appointed by the president and represent the United States in federal court.

bankruptcy judges

Judges who serve 14-year terms and are appointed by the local circuit's Court of Appeals.

clerk of the court

Performs administrative duties in each district court.

appellate court

A court that hears appeals from district courts and certain federal agencies.

legal mistake

What an appellant needs to show in order to have a successful appeal.

en banc review

A review during which other judges from the court examine the case.

U.S. Court of Federal Claims

Hears complaints against the U.S. government in cases where sovereign immunity does not apply.

special federal courts

Courts created by Congress with very limited jurisdictions.

tax court

A court that hears federal-tax cases.

veterans' claims court

A court of appeals to hear veterans' claims.

Court of Appeals for the Federal District

Only hears cases related to specific areas of the law.

panel of judges

A randomly chosen group of three circuit judges that examines the factual record from the first trial.

Writ of certiorari

An order issued by the Supreme Court to review a lower court's decision.

Docket

The list of cases to be heard.

Majority opinion

A court opinion signed by at least five of the nine justices of the Supreme Court.

Concurring opinions

Court opinions that agree with the overall conclusion in a case but stress different or additional legal reasoning.

Dissenting opinions

Court opinions held by the minority of justices who do not agree with the ruling in a case.

Judicial review

The power of the Supreme Court to review acts of Congress and the executive branch.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

A Supreme Court decision in 1857 that declared a slave brought to a free territory was not actually free and could not become a citizen.

Civil Rights Act of 1875

An act struck down by the Supreme Court stating that it was the responsibility of the states, not the federal government, to protect African Americans from discrimination.

Supreme Court nominee

A candidate for a position on the Supreme Court, typically evaluated for legal expertise, party affiliation, and judicial philosophy.

Senate Judiciary Committee

The committee that conducts hearings for Supreme Court nominees.

Plenary review

The entire process the Supreme Court follows to hear and decide cases.

Oral arguments

30 minutes of arguments presented by each side during a Supreme Court case hearing.

Opinion

A detailed written explanation of the major issues, judicial precedents, and legal reasoning behind a Supreme Court decision.

Concurring opinion

An opinion that agrees with the majority but offers different reasoning.

Dissenting opinion

An opinion held by justices who disagree with the majority ruling.

Political power shifts

Changes in the influence and authority of different political groups within the Supreme Court.

Confirmation process

The procedure through which a Supreme Court nominee is evaluated and approved by the Senate.

Civil War

A conflict that was influenced by the Supreme Court's decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford.

Interstate commerce

Trade and other commercial activity that crosses state lines, subject to regulation by Congress.

Thirteenth Amendment

An amendment that abolished slavery in the United States.

Fourteenth Amendment

An amendment that addresses citizenship rights and equal protection under the law.

Fifteenth Amendment

An amendment that prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race.

Judicial branch

The branch of government responsible for interpreting the law and administering justice.