ethical issues and ways of dealing with them

informed consent

Participants should know what they are agreeing to

deception

Misleading participants about the study’s aim

Right to withdraw

Participants can leave at any time

Protection from harm

No greater physical or psychological harm than everyday life

Confidentiality

Personal data must be kept private

Debriefing

After the study, explain true aim and any deception

how to deal with informed consent

Provide full information; for under‑16s, parental consent. If deception is necessary, use presumptive consent (ask a similar group) or retrospective consent (ask after the study)

how to deal with deception

Avoid if possible; if necessary, fully debrief afterwards, explain why deception was used, and offer right to withdraw data

how to deal with right to withdraw

Tell them at the start; remind them during the study; offer to destroy their data after debriefing

how to deal with protection from harm

Conduct a risk assessment; stop the study if harm appears; offer support/counselling; debrief to restore wellbeing

how to deal with confidentiality

Use anonymity (no names, use participant numbers); store data securely; report only group data, not individual

how to deal with debriefing

Give full explanation; allow questions; ensure participant leaves in the same state they arrived; remind them of right to withdraw