ANTHROP 3LD3 Real

What were anatomical waxworks used for?

They were used as alternatives to cadaver dissections for education and display. Susini and Lelli were famous for making them and Anatomical Eves became common in the 17th to 18th century.

Murder Act

1752, permitted public dissection of criminals.

Anatomy Act

1832, ended public dissection as punishment; unclaimed bodies could be used.

What is the “Red Market”?

The trade of anatomical specimens, trophies, and religious relics which often falls in a grey area of legality and morality.

Issues with university skeleton teaching collections

Obtained without consent or through coercion from socially marginalized people, an issue of structural violence.

Dr. Gunther von Hagens

An anatomist and inventor who invented plastination and created the “Body Worlds” exhibitions.

Plastination (and its five steps)

Developed in 1977 by Dr. Gunther von Hagens to preserve bodies without wetness or decay involves - (1.) fixating the corpse with preservatives (formadehyde), (2.) removing the water and fat in an acetone bath, (3.) forced vacuum impregnation of polymers, (4.) positioning with wires, needles, clamps, and foam blocks, (5.) curing

What is the purpose of the “Body Worlds” exhibitions? What were some criticisms of it?

Teach people about the human body and health. Some say it was a form of “shock art” and there was criticism about pregnant and fetus bodies being displayed, even though they were all obtained through body donation.

Functions of displaying bodies (4)

Deter and display identity, capture spirits of killed enemies, reminders of our own mortality, objects of worship

Key features of relics (3)

Durability, incorruptibility, portability. Comes from the Latin reliquae (things left behind).

1st class relic

A body part of a saint or religious figure or a reliquary (container for a relic). Ex: St. Peter’s bones (St. Peter’s Basilica)

2nd class relic

An object that was worn or possessed by a saint.

3rd class relic

Objects that the saint touched, or that came into contact with a 1st or 2nd class relic.

Significance of relics to Christians

Veneration of relics is particularly important in Christianity, churches were required to have a relic in their church altars. They are connections to martyrs, saints, or religious figures. People believed they could perform miracles by being near them or touching them.

Functions of relics (3)

Markers of identity, source of power/control, custodians of culture/heritage

Significance of the Roman catacombs

They were a source of early Christian relics and the skeletons of the “Catacomb saints.”

The Catacomb Saints

Skeletons found in the Roman catacombs, identified as Christian martyrs. They were taken from them and sent to churches around Europe to arouse enthusiasm and loyalty, and legitimize the church. In the 19th century doubts about their authenticity arose and most were removed from public view.

Regulation of relics

In the 19th century the use of relics was regulated by the church - they had to be authenticated and sealed in a reliquary with wax.

Buddha’s teeth

Relic from the founder of Buddhism who lived between the 6th and 4th century BCE. Some kept in a temple in Sri Lanka.

The Buddha’s Finger Bone

Found in a chamber below the Famen Temple in China in 8 nested reliquary boxes

Types of Islamic Relics

Bodily relics, contact relics (objects), imprint relics (impressions), animated relics, stage relics (revered locations)

Imprint relics

Impressions of feet, hands, elbows, and heads

Animated relics

Moving trees, talking stones

Stage relics

Revered locations

Reasons for using human remains as relics

Markers of identity, sources of prestige and authority, important for pilgrimages

Present 2 arguments for why the dead should or should not have human rights in forensic investigations.

The dead have legal rights and some (ex: Moon) believe that they have the right to dignity, their identities, to be returned to their families, and to a proper burial, to make up for how they may have been treated in life. Others (ex: Rosenblatt) believe that agency and dignity are no longer applicable to the dead because they no longer have agency and dignity because forensic teams arrive after the people affected have had their human rights violated.

The EAAF

The Argentine Forensic Anthropology team, trained by Clyde snow to help recover disappeared Argentines and now work in 60+ countries.

El Mozote Massacre

During the civil war in the 80s, the Salvadorean army arrived in El Mozote due to suspicion of guerilla rebel activities. They questioned, tortured, and killed men, and raped and killed women and girls. The massacre was covered up and denied by the government until the court ordered the exhumation of the sites.

How was the El Mozote Massacre proven to be an attack by the Salvadorean army

When mass graves were exhumed it was found that the bodies were all deposited in the mass grave at the same time, it was not a civilian burial site. Additionally, the forensic evidence showed that the people were shot in the backs of their heads with Salvadorean firearms.

Challenges of Human Rights Investigations (7)

Occur in areas of political unrest, tight timeframes and budgets, may occur late after the events, complex archeology sites, different language, intense scrutiny, and identification is difficult.

Ayotzinapa

Buses of 43 male students en route to a protest were stopped by the police and none of the men were ever seen alive again. The police thought to be in collusion with a regional cartel.

How do families of the “disappeared” search for their family members?

Ordinary people come together and search areas based on prior knowledge or information they get from the community (like farmers), they teach each other what to look for. They hammer metal rods into parts of the soil and pull them out to see if there is a smell from buried bodies.

What do families of the “disappeared” in Mexico suspect happened to their loved ones?

They were taken away by cartels or the police for being involved with gangs/cartels or close to someone who was. Many bodies were dismembered and lit on fire. The police do not investigate as they should, because of lack of skill, resources, and corruption.

What does the company Kenyon do? (Campbell)

They handle disasters for companies (like plane crashes) - they set up crisis lines, change details on the website, set up accommodations for families, and set up family assistance, while keeping specific cultural factors in mind. They keep profiles of potential victims and help match them to bodies. Mo works there and is featured in this chapter.

How is the identification of bodies in disaster political?

Rich tourists have more say in what happens because of international pressure and some people have less records available.

How does Mo in “Limbo” give families of disaster victims agency?

He allows them to view a body in a poor state after warning them because it can give a sense of closure, and he asks how much they want to know and what parts or possessions of their loved ones they may want.

Why are/were HeLa cells so important for research?

They could live and replicate outside the body infinitely because of their cancerous nature (Henrietta had cervical cancer and HPV), the telomeres did not shorten with age and die. This meant tests could be done on human tissues outside the human body for the first time ever and the HeLa cells have been used to develop vaccines, treatments, and IVF.

Why were patients at the time of Henrietta Lacks not asked for consent to participate in research?

It was common at the time because patients were treated for free at hospitals like John Hopkins, so it was seen as fair to use them as research subjects.

How was Henrietta Lacks’ family disrespected by the beneficiaries of Henrietta’s cells

They did not know that Henrietta was the source of the cells until an article was published 20+ years later, they did not give permission for them to be used at first, and their blood was collected to map the HeLa gene without informed consent.

What are some ways that Henrietta Lacks’ family eventually get recognized for the HeLa cells?

The family was honored at a symposium, asked for permission by researchers to use the cells further, and Thermo Fisher eventually settled with them after court battles. There are also scholarships and awards in her name.

Measles vs Rubella

Measles: a paramyxovirus, high fever; Rubella (aka German Measles): a togavirus, mild fever but causes congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) - an unpreventable and untreatable condition that causes disabilities and death in fetuses and pregnant women

How was the Rubella vaccine developed?

Using an attenuated (weakened) virus

How are cell lines for vaccine research developed?

Leonard Hayflick developed the WI-38 cell line using the cells of an aborted fetus. Fetal cells are used because they’re from a sterile environment and can easily be reproduced. This cell line and its descendents is still used today.

What does “brain death” mean?

Complete and irreversible loss of all brain function including the brainstem - can’t breathe independently, no intentional movement, no reflexes

What are the benefits of research on brain dead people (physiologically maintained deceased)

As biologically close to a clinical reality as possible. Good for testing organ transplants, treatment testing, and neuroscience and brain regeneration.

Ethical considerations around research on brain dead patients

Not covered by current regulations or research guideline. It is imperative to obtain informed consent from families (and patients if possible), donation for transplant should take precedence over donation for research. Another question is whether hospital staff and resources should be allocated for this research.

How did Dr. Bansal and Bioquark use brain-dead people for research?

They proposed regenerating neurons in mostly young braindead patients who were in traffic accidents, but there was backlash. Dr. Bansal continued the research (funded by him and a private hospital) in India after Bioquark halted the research. Some subjects showed signs of renewed brain activity.

Why study preserved/mummified bodies?

To understand health in the past, understand mortuary practice, and investigate environmental conditions.

What makes a body more likely to be naturally preserved?

Cold temperatures, low oxygen, acidic conditions, alkaline conditions, high salinity

Spirit Cave, Nevada bodies

Oldest naturally mummified body - 2 bodies wrapped in tule matting & artifacts, one partly mummified

Ache Man

Late 20s body found under sand near dwellings. Had preserved hair, fabric, tissues, and organs ~7000 BCE in Chile.

Bog bodies

Preserved very well in peat bogs (acidic, low-oxygen, and low temp.), with tanned skin. Famous examples are Tollund man and Lindow man

Tollund man

Found in Denmark - 40 years old, rope marks indicated hanging

Lindow man

Found in Manchester - 20 years old, killed violently with a weapon

The Salt Men of Iran

From the 5th to 2nd c. BCE in Zanjan, Iran, likely died from a mine collapse. Naturally desiccated due to salinity.

Fardo burials (Peru)

Of the Ychma culture in Peru. Wrapped in a crouched position with offerings and placed in a chamber or pit. Ear spools and cranial modification observed in one example of an adolescent.

Inca mummies of Llullaillaco

Found at the summit of a volcano in Argentina, where it is low temp., high altitude. Human sacrifices placed in a chamber 1.5m below ground.

Mummies of Guanajuato, Mexico

117 naturally mummified bodies from a crypt under the city cemetery in a warm, dry environment.

Otzi

“The Ice Man” found in Otzal Alps and dated to ~3200 BCE, died from an arrow. Had the oldest known tattoos maybe used for therapeutic purposes.

The Franklin Expedition

Trip to navigate the NW passage became icebound and the men died in the extreme cold from and many were found on Beechey Island and King William Island.

Greenland Mummies

8 individuals found in a shallow cave under rocks. Desiccated due to wind and cold. Part of a matrilineal group, died of several causes and had a meat and seafood based diet.

Tarim Mummies

In China, preserved due to arid desert climate, saline soils, extreme cold in winter. Buried under boats and had Western attire and European features (red hair, light skin, 6+). Linked to Eurasian populations.

Subeshi Witches

3 bodies from the 4th-3rd c. BCE found buried with tall black hats and a single heavy glove (hunted with a raptor?)

Chinchorro Mummies

AKA the Red Mummies, the world’s oldest intentionally preserved mummies (5500 BCE) Atacama Desert region (Chile & Peru). Bodies taken completely apart then reassembled.

How do the Chinchorro mummies reveal anatomical knowledge? How were they prepared for burial?

Found with small incisions, organs removed, cavities dried and skin removed and sewn back on, and body stuffed with natural fibers. Faces covered with clay masks and body painted with natural dyes.

Old Kingdom Ancient Egyptian Mummies

Resin and linen wrappings. Very few have survived.

New Kingdom Ancient Egyptian Mummies

Only for the elite. Involves ritual purification and removal of organs and brain through - body cavity being packed with natron, adding offerings, using resin, oil, and linen wrappings. Placed in sarcophagus.

Why did Ancient Egyptians mummify?

Body was the home for the spirit (ka).

Ptolemaic mummies

More elaborate wrappings than Egyptian mummies but the quality declined with the commercialization & mass production of mummies.

Animal mummies

Earthly incarnations of deities.

Roman mummies

Had portraits or stylized faces. Roman & Christian beliefs led to a preference for coffin burials because emphasis was more on the soul than the preservation of the body.

Health conditions identified in Egyptian Mummies

Infectious diseases, heart disease, cancer, parasites, degenerative diseases.

What kind of body was actually in the mummy misidentified as a hawk?

A male human fetus, identified via CT scans. He was an anencaphalic stillbirth, would have been from an elite or special family, may have been mummified for reasons related to magic.

Anencephaly

Congenital defect that leads to skeletal defects and is caused by a deficiency of folic acid in the diet of the mother.

Scythian Mummies

Siberian, internal organs removed and replaced with straw. Bodies dressed and placed in hollowed out log coffins. The Pazyryk mummy was tattooed with mythical and real animals possibly for protection.

Han Dynasty Mummies

Found in central provinces, in inverted pyramid tombs.

Lady Dai

Best preserved body in the world. Preserved because the tomb was deep, sealed in 6 nested coffins, wrapped in 20 layers of silk, charcoal and clay were around the whole structure, and her corpse was covered with a magnesium-based liquid around her corpse. Died of a heart attack in her ~50s.

Phoenix Hill mummy

Jiangling Region of China, nested coffins covered with kaolin clay. Inner coffin filled with dark red liquid, local governor of Shiyang village.

Buddhist mummies

Tibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan - self mummification for enlightenment. They fast, exercise, dehydrate themselves, consume pine needles, tree bark, and seeds before dead and consume toxic tea. Ex: Fu Hou in Quanzhou, China.

Golden mummies of Fuijan

Buddhist golden statues with skeletons, internal organs removed and replaced with paper scraps.

How were bodies preserved in the Medieval period

Using alcohol and herbs (only for royalty and saints). Done for purposes of proof of death for succession, delaying decomposition for transportation, or display for veneration.

Renaissance Embalming

Da Vinci, Ruyush, and Harvey experimented with embalming methods like embalming jars.

Mummies of Palermo, Sicily

In the renaissance, capuchin monks had their internal organs removed and were placed in a drying chamber for 8-12 months, washed with vinegar, lime, herbs, and in later years were treated with arsenic and formaldehyde.

19th to 21st century embalming

Sanitize and preserve corpses for transportation and display. Formaldehyde first used ~1860 and it was used widely in the American Civil War. Blood, gases, fluids drained and replaces them with chemicals and restoration of face or body occur.

Fayum mummy portraits

Realistic detailed facial expressions. Painted on cartonnage, linen, or imported lime wood and painted using hot wax or egg based paint. Frequently depicted with flowers or golden wreath.

Etruscan Funerary Effigies

Deceased portrayed reclining on the top of the sarcophagus.

Roman funerary altars & busts

Realistic busts made of marble, bronze, or terracotta - kept in tombs or household shrines for ancestor worship.

Roman Death Masks

Republican to early imperial. Made from wax, bronze, terracotta, plaster. Made of casts of the deceased’s face (likely made while they were living). Kept in shrines and ancestral masks were worn by male actors during funerary processions.

Coffin Portraits

Eastern European detailed portraits painted on tin, copper, lead, or wood and attached to coffin.

Mourning miniature

Momento mori tradition, mini portraits fit in lockets, brooches, or small frames, sometimes with a lock of hair.

Post-mortem photography

Emerged in the Victorian Era with the development of commercial photography in 1840s. Daguerreotypes were used at first (expensive and only produced one copy, but not as expensive as painted portraits) until carte-de-visites became more common (allowed multiple copies and more affordable). PM photography of infants/children was common because infant mortality was high and the parents would often not have any other pictures of their child alive.

How did the camera obscura work?

First described in the 5th century BCE. Dark chamber with a pinhole to permit light. In the 15th century glass and mirrors were used to enhance and direct images, and later portable versions appeared. First picture was made in the 19th century.

Forms of postmortem photography

Stereoscopic cards, postcards, life-like photos, family photos, bodies posed and surrounded with flowers (real or painted on after)

Why did post-mortem photography decline in the 20th century?

Healthcare and survivorship improved, the funeral home industry grew, and photography became more accessible and people had pictures of the living.

Hospital bereavement photos

Provided for families who experience perinatal death to assist in the grieving process.

3 forms of modern memorialization

Mediterranean countries often have pictures of the deceased on them, QR code or virtual memorials, tattoo memorial portraits

What does remembering the dead do for the living?

Has social, cultural, and emotional functions. Provides a focal point for grief and maintains a bond and remembrance with the dead.

Joel Peter-Witkin

Artist who created “Disagreeable Beauty.” The images involve death, deformity, and tabboos and make reference to Renaissance art. Not about death, about ideas and transformation.

Wayne Martin Belger

Artist who builds unique sculptural cameras for each projects, some include human remains.

Andres Serrano

Artist who made “The Morgue” series. Wanted to confront the viewer with the starkness and unavoidable nature of death, and challenge taboos.