Social and Developmental

Attribution Theory

Developed by British scholars David Hume and Adam Smith, focuses on explaining how people attribute emotions and morality to behavior.

Gestalt Psychology

Emphasizes the importance of looking at the whole picture rather than specific aspects in understanding social behavior.

Self-Awareness Theory (SAT)

Proposed by Duval and Wicklund, suggests that self-awareness leads to noticing discrepancies between behavior and standards, prompting individuals to either match behavior to standards or escape self-awareness.

Self-Concept

Complete set of beliefs individuals have about themselves, including self-schema that influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in specific contexts.

Self-Verification

Motivated by the desire to confirm existing beliefs about oneself, regardless of positivity or negativity, to maintain cognitive consistency.

Regulatory Focus Theory

Posits two distinct regulatory systems, promotion and prevention, influencing how individuals construct and regulate the self.

Sociometer Theory

Views self-esteem as an internal gauge of social inclusion, with signs of exclusion leading to lowered self-esteem and behavioral changes to seek inclusion.

Self-Esteem

Subjective evaluation of oneself as intrinsically positive or negative, influenced by upbringing, individual differences, and social acceptance.

Impression Management

Strategies individuals use to present themselves in a favorable light to others, influenced by motives such as self-enhancement and control in social interactions.

Social exchange theory

An economic approach based on relationship 'costs' and 'rewards', where people evaluate relationships based on rewards gained, costs incurred, and comparison with alternatives.

Equity theory

Outcomes in relationships should be proportionate to contributions, emphasizing fairness and equity over personal gains.

Reinforcement

People tend to like those associated with positive feelings, even without tangible rewards, and prefer their presence during positive events.

Sternberg's Triangle

A model comprising passion, intimacy, and commitment as key components of love and romantic relationships.

Harlow's monkey study

Demonstrated that infant attachment is influenced more by contact comfort than by the provision of food, highlighting the importance of emotional connections.

Types of attachment

Secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant attachment styles based on behaviors like separation anxiety and reunion behavior.

Attitude complexity

Refers to the evaluation of attitude objects along multiple dimensions, distinguishing between simple and complex attitudes.

Attitude function

Katz's model identifies knowledge, utilitarian, value expression, and ego defensive functions as important aspects of attitudes.

Implicit and explicit attitudes

Attitudes can be measured through direct methods like attitude scales or indirect methods like the Implicit Association Test (IAT).

Cognitive dissonance

An unpleasant state arising from inconsistencies between attitudes and behaviors, leading individuals to change attitudes to reduce discomfort.

Conventionally attractive campaigning

Study by Eagly and Chaiken (1975) showing that conventionally attractive individuals had a higher success rate in petition signatures compared to unattractive individuals.

Peripheral cues

Attractive individuals seek more face-to-face contact with low motivation audiences, understanding the power of peripheral cues in persuasion.

Door-in-the-face technique

Persuasion strategy involving making a large unrealistic request before a smaller, more realistic request, increasing the likelihood of compliance.

Similarity with audience

Being similar to the audience in terms of shared ingroup identity and mimicry enhances persuasiveness.

Truth effect

Statements become more believable when repeated, related to the mere exposure effect in attitudes and impression formation.

Reactance

Strong reaction against influence attempts perceived as threats to personal freedom.

Attitude inoculation

Exposing individuals to weak, attitude-inconsistent arguments before a stronger persuasive attempt to help them resist the message.

Warrior gene

Mutation in the gene MAO-A linked to increased aggression, acting as a switch off to neurotransmitters controlling behavior.

Social learning theory

Theory suggesting that aggression can be learned from observing others, as demonstrated in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment.

General aggression model (GAM)

Anderson and Bushman's model describing how situational and personality variables combine to produce human aggression.

Ideologies supporting power and dominance over women

Beliefs that advocate control and superiority over women, influencing behaviors and attitudes towards women (Abrams et al., 2003)

Fear affecting all women

The impact of fear on women's lives, stemming from ideologies and societal structures (Brownmiller, 1975; Schwartz & Brand, 1983)

Hate-crime

Aggressive or illegal acts driven by prejudice towards a specific group, such as race, gender, or religion

Intergroup violence

Violence between different social groups, often fueled by prejudice and discrimination

Lynchings study by Mullen (1986)

Research showing a correlation between the number of attendees and the severity of violence during lynchings

Weapons effects

The association between stereotypes and the identification of weapons, as demonstrated by Payne (2001)

Group influences on aggression

The impact of group dynamics on aggressive behaviors, as shown by Jaffe Yinnon (1983)

Social groups

Collections of two or more individuals who identify as a group and share a sense of belonging

Ingroup and Outgroup

Ingroup refers to the groups individuals belong to, while Outgroup refers to those they do not belong to (Deaux et al., 1995)

Group cohesion

The degree of attraction and satisfaction within a group, influenced by internal forces and individual goals (Festinger et al., 1950)

Norms

Rules guiding behavior within a group, either formal or informal, and varying across cultures (Milgram’s subway study; Cialdini et al., 1990)

Roles and status

Shared expectations of behavior within groups and the value attributed to different social roles (Barley and Bechky, 1994; Festinger, 1954)

Deviants in groups

Marginal group members who deviate from the group's norms and are often disliked (Marques et al., 1988)

Impostors

Individuals posing as genuine group members but are not, impacting group dynamics (Jetten et al., 2005; Schoemann and Branscombe, 2011)

Schism and subgroups

The division of groups into smaller subgroups, potentially leading to conflict for the whole group (Sani and Reicher, 1998; Crisp and Hewstone, 2007)

Social influence

The effect of others on thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, including conformity and obedience (Sherif, 1935, 1937; Asch, 1951, 1952, 1956; Milgram, 1965, 1974)

Comparison Level

The expectation that benefits outweigh the costs in relationships, as proposed by Thibaut and Kelley in 1959.

Equity Theory

Introduced by Adams in 1965, it suggests that people compare the net benefits they receive in a relationship with those their partner receives, leading to dissatisfaction if there is an imbalance.

Just World Theory

Lerner in 1980 proposed that individuals have a deep-seated need to view the world as just, transitioning from the pleasure principle to the reality principle in childhood.

Positive Illusion

A belief in a just world that brings order into chaos, associated with positive affect, optimism, effective coping with stress, better sleep, lower levels of depression, and reduced loneliness.

Altruism

Actions performed to benefit others without personal gain, a form of prosocial behavior valued by society.

Bystander Intervention

The act of helping someone in danger or distress by individuals who are not the cause of the situation, studied extensively after the murder of Kitty Genovese.

Stereotyping

Simplified beliefs about the characteristics of groups and their members, often used due to cognitive limitations and reliance on heuristics.

Prejudice

Negative affective reactions towards a group and its members, stemming from stereotypes and leading to discriminatory behaviors.

Discrimination

Negative treatment of individuals based on their group membership, often influenced by stereotypes and prejudices.

Illusory Correlation Bias

The tendency to perceive a relationship between group membership and specific behaviors, leading to inaccurate judgments, especially prevalent when dealing with minority groups.

Homosexuality as a Psychiatric Disorder

Until 1973, homosexuality was classified as a psychiatric disorder, reflecting societal views at the time.

Civil Partnership Act (2004)

Faced public opposition (86%) due to traditional religious beliefs and gender role endorsements.

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Proposed stages of cognitive development (Sensorimotor, Pre-Operational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational) emphasizing qualitative changes in thinking.

Vygotsky's Social Constructivism

Emphasized the role of culture, language, and social interactions in cognitive development, contrasting with Piaget's theory.

Longitudinal vs

Research methods in developmental psychology, with longitudinal studies observing the same participants over time and cross-sectional studies comparing different age groups at one point.

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Focuses on the deep emotional bond between individuals, critical for survival and adaptation, with stages like asocial, indiscriminate, specific attachment, and multiple attachments.

Ainsworth Strange Situation

Method to measure attachment types based on separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, and reunion behavior, categorizing into Secure, Insecure Avoidant, Insecure Resistant, and Disorganized attachments.

Internal Working Models

Representations of attachment relationships influencing future behavior, with features like trust in others, self-worth, and effectiveness in interactions, varying in Secure, Insecure-Avoidant, Insecure-Resistant, and Disorganized attachments.

Long-term Outcomes of Attachment

Secure attachments predict positive social skills, while insecure attachments may lead to issues like depression, social withdrawal, disruptive behavior, and risky experiences in adolescence.

Maternal Sensitivity

Emphasis on a parent's ability to respond sensitively and be emotionally available to a child, influencing the child's attachment style.

Attachment Styles

Secure, Resistant, Avoidant, Disorganized - Reflect different parental behaviors and their impact on a child's attachment security.

Child Temperament

Individual attribute influencing attachment but not determinative; even irritable infants can form secure attachments.

Parent's Internal Working Model

Shaped by adult attachment interviews, strongly linked to a child's attachment security.

Adult Attachment Classification

Dismissive, Autonomous, Preoccupied, Unresolved - Reflects adult attachment styles based on childhood experiences and relationships.

Educational Theories

Piaget's constructivism and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory influence learning and teaching approaches.

Mathematics Cognition

Concepts like number sense, procedural knowledge, and conservation tasks are crucial in understanding mathematical development.

Reading Development

Phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, and print conventions are essential precursors to reading skills.

Sensory Evolution

Evolutionary perspective on the development of sensory systems and their adaptation to the environment over time.

Infancy Development

Critical period of helplessness, dependence on caregivers, and acquisition of skills for survival and growth.

Gibson's Perceptual Systems

Gibson argued that perceptual systems have evolved.

Precocious Infant

Haith & Benson suggested that infants are born with greater capacities for perceiving and acting in the world than behavior observation suggests.

Nativist Approach

The belief that much of the development of the mind comes from genetic factors.

Phylogeny

Concerns the evolutionary origins of a species.

Ontogeny

Concerns the developmental lifespan of a single organism.

Nature vs

The debate about whether genetics (nature) or environment and experiences (nurture) play a greater role in development.

Neural Development

The growth and organization of the brain and nervous system.

Cerebral Cortex

The brain's outer layer divided into two hemispheres and four lobes, each responsible for different functions.

Sensory Development

The process of how sensory systems develop in infants.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Auditory Development

The development of the auditory system, including the ability to perceive and process sound.

Taste (Gustation)

The sense related to the perception of different flavors.

Smell (Olfaction)

The sense related to the perception of different scents.

Touch

The sense related to physical contact and pressure on the skin.

Motor Reflexes

Inborn, automatic responses to specific stimuli that infants are born with.

Cultural Transmission

The passing of cultural beliefs, practices, and knowledge from one generation to the next.

Visual Perception

The process of interpreting visual information from the environment.

Attachment Styles

Different patterns of attachment infants develop with their caregivers based on cultural practices and beliefs.

Colour Perception

The interpretation and categorization of colors, which can vary across cultures.

Above-average effect

The tendency for individuals to view themselves more positively compared to others, as demonstrated by Cross et al. (1977) with American academics.

Cultural differences in self-perception

Variances in self-perception across different cultures, such as the negated findings in Mexico and Chile, and the reversed results in East Asia.

Analytical vs

The distinction between Western analytical thinking, focusing on objects and rules, and Eastern holistic thinking, emphasizing context and relationships.

Self-concept

The collection of ideas individuals have about themselves, including physical and mental qualities, and social identities derived from group memberships.

Gender identity development

The process through which children establish their understanding of gender roles, stereotypes, and their own gender identity.

Self-esteem

The evaluative component of self-concept, reflecting judgments of one's own worth and influenced by others' evaluations, with implications for emotional experiences and behavior.

Cognitive development and gender stereotyping

The impact of biology, social learning theory, and cognitive changes on the formation of gender roles and stereotypes in children.