Definitions (First Half of Term)

Game Theory

This is a common method of evaluating and predicting decision-making in the field of International Relations (IR). It was invented during World War II by Von Neumann and acts as a mathematical analysis of human behavior.

Rational Choice Modeling

This theory assumes that a decision-maker will consistently choose the best available action according to their own preferences. Game theory was quickly adopted for this type of modeling.

Dominant Strategy

A strategy where players choose the highest payoffs, often associated with zero-sum outcomes.

Nash Equilibrium

This is an action profile where no player can improve their outcome by unilaterally deviating, assuming all other players' actions remain fixed. It represents a stable "social norm" or steady state.

Normal Form

This refers to games typically depicted in a simple matrix to analyze the dominant strategy versus the Nash Equilibrium. * Extensive Form

Prisoners Dilemma

This is the most commonly used game, assessing the defection process in economic and political situations. It models situations where individual incentives to "free ride" lead to a suboptimal outcome for both players compared to mutual cooperation.

Chicken (Hawks & Doves)

This model is often used to depict spirals into war, questioning who backs down first. It shows that if you make "swerving" more costly, you can trick people into war, but if you make going "straight" more costly, you can avoid conflict.

Stag Hunt

A cooperative model illustrating the conflict between safety and social cooperation. Players must choose between a potentially high-value cooperative action (Stag) and a safe, lower-value individual action (Hare).

Payoff

The outcome or reward stakeholders receive, which is usually better when they cooperate.

Relative Gains

This concept considers the gains made over an opponent rather than absolute maximum payoffs. Prioritizing relative gains risks moving to suboptimal outcomes when players want to "screw you over".

Cooperation and Defection

Cooperation generally yields better overall results, but asymmetric payoff results drive players toward defection.

IR Theory

The overarching study of international relations, encompassing positivist theories (like Realism and Liberalism) and critical theories.

Idealism

An interwar period theory heavily pushed by Woodrow Wilson, focusing on the League of Nations to avoid future wars. It was mercilessly destroyed after WWII and critiqued as naive.

Realism

A theory positing that the international system is defined by anarchy and that states act rationally to maximize their chances of survival. It views the world "as it is" and examines global politics strictly at the state level.

Self-Interest/Self-Help

The realist concept that states act within a self-help system driven by self-interest, which in turn drives global politics.

Anarchic System

An international system defined by the absence of a central authority to order relations between states.

Hegemonic War

A concept within realism involving the overhaul of actors within the system, though the system itself remains dominated by state self-interest.

Multi-Polar/Bi-Polar/Uni-Polar System

A bi-polar system is very stable, a multi-polar system is somewhat stable, and a uni-polar system (one hegemon without rivals) is unstable and short-lived.

Power-Balancing vs. Band-wagoning

Power balancing is the more likely defensive realist strategy to avoid dangerous conflicts, whereas bandwagoning is less likely.

Liberalism

A teleological theory stressing cooperation, economic interdependence, and the idea that the internal characteristics of individual states matter.

Spheres of Influence

Refers to the Cold War blocs, specifically the 1st world (USA sphere) and the 2nd world (USSR sphere).

Teleological

A theory, like Liberalism or Marxism, that sees a progression toward a final, ultimate state of governance (like liberal democracy or communism).

Liberal Peace Theory

The assertion that mature liberal democracies rarely, if ever, go to war with one another.

Interdependence, Cooperation

The liberal concept that economics and trade are critical for creating global interdependence.

Institutionalism

A sub-field of liberalism arguing that institutions foster cooperation by extending the time horizon of interactions, reducing transaction costs, and making punishment for cheating credible.

Constructivism

A theory arguing that state behavior is driven by identities, beliefs, and norms rather than objective power. It focuses on how states view themselves and mutually construct the system.

Actors/Agents

Constructivism highlights that individual actors and agents (like Gorbachev, Bush, or Trump) matter heavily in shaping the state.

Norm & Norm Creation

Analyzing how normative formations are created is critical to Constructivism, such as understanding what weapons are considered taboo.

State Identity

The constructivist idea that state interests are not innate but are constructed over time, forming a distinct identity.

Construction

The idea that elements like liberal cooperation and the global system itself are mutually constructed by states, not simply a given.

Signaling

An element of Constructivism involving how states communicate intentions (e.g., considering an alien invasion).

Marxism

A critical theory aiming at a critical understanding of capitalism based on historical political economic changes that affect the means and modes of production. * World Systems Theory

Historicism

An approach used in critical theories like Marxism to critique empirical assumptions by analyzing historic events and missing underlying factors.

Determinism

Western Marxism (like Gramsci) rejected "economic determinism," which is the idea that economics automatically dictates politics.

Means/Modes of Production

Means of production are the facilities and resources for producing goods (tools, land, machines), while modes of production are the specific organization of economic production in a society.

Post-Colonialism

A critical theory challenging traditional, Euro-centric IR theories. It aims to de-colonize the global system and dispels "romantic" western assumptions.

Layers of Identity/Intersectionality

Explains the ways power comes and collides, originally articulated as a Black feminist theory to show how Black women were excluded from both feminist and racial analysis.

Feminism (Various Waves and Approaches)

The 1st wave focused on enfranchisement, the 2nd wave on equal opportunity, and the 3rd wave on gender-based analysis of privilege and oppression. IR Feminism explores the role of gender-oppression in a global patriarchal system.

Malthusian Arguments

Arguments focused on limited resources and carrying capacity that previously failed to resonate but are becoming more applicable.

Eco-Centricism

A green theory approach rejecting anthropocentrism in favor of valuing non-human nature for its own sake.

Limits to Growth (Exponential vs. Logistical)

Exponential growth is unrestricted and accelerates, whereas logistic growth is restricted by the carrying capacity of the environment.

Externalities

A cost or benefit caused by a producer that is not financially incurred or received by that producer.

Eclectic Approaches

A modern approach acknowledging that no single theory is wholly right, relying on a blend of liberalism, realism, and constructivism to understand the system.

Bretton Woods Institutions

Designed by the US post-WWII to stabilize the economy and prevent another Great Depression. Includes institutions that allow for government intervention and safety nets.

World Bank

Originally the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, created under the UN umbrella.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

An institution created under Bretton Woods to assist with balance of payments.

Security Council

A UN body consisting of 15 members (5 permanent, 10 elected) where the permanent 5 (P5) hold veto power.

General Assembly

A UN body that only 'recommends' things.

Marshal Plan

A massive US plan offered to all of Europe to rebuild democracy and capitalism in destroyed European states.

Molotov Plan

The USSR's rejection of the Marshall plan, focusing instead on bilateral trade agreements to encourage a realignment east.

International Norms

Social meanings and rules analyzed heavily by Constructivists to understand state behavior.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Goals adopted to succeed the Millennium Development Goals, showing that Green Theory approaches are being better acknowledged.

Non-Aligned Movement

Consisted of the "3rd world" developing nations during the Cold War that were pushed to subscribe to either the US or USSR economic approaches.

International Political Economy (IPE)

Studies how politics shape the global economy and how the global economy shapes politics.

Neo-Classical Economics

Relies on simple market demand and minimal state intervention.

Keynesian Economics

Involves the use of monetary and fiscal policy to offset poor private sector decisions, such as driving demand up during a recession.

Beggar-Thy-Neighbor

Economic policies attempting to remedy one nation's economic issues at the expense of another, such as tariff wars or dumping.

Strong State vs. Weak State Structure

Refers to the amount of centralization within a state; a more centralized state is stronger because it has direct command and control ability to micromanage its economy.

Monetary Policy

The use of money supply levers, like interest rates, used by central banks to deal with inflation, price stability, and currency.

Fiscal Policy

The use of spending or taxation levers the government uses to monitor, adjust, or direct a national economy.

Interest Rates

Levers adjusted in monetary policy to make money "cheaper" or more expensive to borrow.

GATT & WTO

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was created post-WWII to avoid trade wars, and it eventually became the World Trade Organization in 1995 to enforce fairer trade.

Economic Structuralism

State-directed economic policies that shift resources into desired industries, often transitioning from agriculture to manufacturing.

Communism

In Marxist theory, the final stage leading to full enfranchisement of the population. Economically, it manifested as state-run centrally planned models in the Soviet bloc.

Terms of Trade

The price of a country's exports relative to the price of its imports.

Backward Linkages

Occurs when the product of one finished good increases the demand for the needed components, essentially building a supply chain. * Pecuniary External Economies

First Mover Status

A competitive advantage gained by a company or state-owned business from being the first to enter a market.

Modernization Theory (Rostow's Take Off Theory)

A staged development approach pushed by the US for developing nations, moving from Pre-development to Takeoff, and ultimately to High Mass Consumption. *

Dependency Theory (Singer/Prebisch)

A Neo-Marxist theory attempting to create import-competing industries to break dependency on core states that dominate high-value industries.

Core/Semi-Periphery/Periphery

An international division of labor where the Core produces value-added goods, the Periphery provides raw materials and cheap labor, and the Semi-periphery is transitional.

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

A state-led strategy to industrialize by substituting domestically produced goods for imports.

Economies of Scale

A problem faced by ISI models, as domestic markets are often too small to achieve proper industries of scale efficiently.

Stagflation

An economy experiencing a simultaneous increase in inflation and stagnation of economic output (high unemployment and slow growth).

Neo-Liberalism

An economic philosophy emerging in the 1980s that aims to create a weak economic state through deregulation, privatization, and letting the market decide.

Structural Readjustment

Bailout stipulations framed by the IMF/World Bank forcing struggling economies to transition to Neo-Liberal economics and open their markets.

Deregulation

Lessening government involvement, taxes, tariffs, and capital controls.

Tariffs

Trade barriers placed on competing industries in other countries to protect domestic markets.

Trilemma

The "Impossible Trinity" stating a country cannot simultaneously achieve exchange rate stability, full financial integration (capital mobility), and monetary independence. * Capital Controls

Pegged Currency

A policy where a national government sets a specific fixed exchange rate for its currency with a foreign currency.

Gold Standard

A historical system where each country set a fixed rate at which its currency could be converted into a specific weight of gold.

Letting the Market Decide

A core tenet of Neo-Liberalism, also known as market fundamentalism.

Neo-Statism/Asian Tiger Model

An approach applying state intervention into economic management through industry targeting and protection of infant industries until they can compete globally.

Entry Level Industries

The simple, starting industries in the Neo-Statist model (like textiles or clock radios) that are mastered before moving up the value-added chain.

Industry Targeting

The state facilitating companies to enter specific industries using loans, tax incentives, and tariffs.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period.

GDP per capita

Used in Growth Identification to find comparison countries with similar endowment structures but higher per capita income.

Washington Consensus

A set of neoliberal economic policy recommendations (stabilize, privatize, and liberalize) pushed by the IMF and World Bank for developing countries.

Market Cycles

Referenced through cyclical economic booms and busts, such as the Dot.com tech bubble bursting and the 2008 Great Recession.

Too Big to Fail

While this exact phrase is not in the text, the concept is covered under the "moral hazard" where banks made risky loans believing governments would bail them out, leading to the actual federal bailouts of banks during the 2008 crash.

Currency Manipulation

Mentioned as central banks attempting to keep their currency price favorable for international trade.

Wage Suppression

Addressed as part of the Marxist critique where lower profit margins lead to lower wages, and referenced in the "Neo-Statist wage trap".

Globalization (Economic)

The spread of economic interconnectedness that, according to critiques, has created a "spiky" world of deep inequalities rather than a flat, equal playing field.

Multinational Corporation (MNCs)

Firms that control production in at least two countries.

State Owned Industries (SOEs)

Enterprises where the state becomes a major owner of production, highly common in single-party systems like China.