Animal Form, Metabolism, and Immunity

What are anatomy and physiology?

Anatomy = biological form; Physiology = biological function

What are the four tissue types?

Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

What is the function of epithelial tissue?

Covers body surfaces, lines organs/cavities, protects and interfaces with environment

What are the three epithelial arrangements?

Simple (1 layer), stratified (many layers), pseudostratified (1 layer that appears multilayered)

What are the types of epithelial tissue?

Cuboidal, columnar, squamous, pseudostratified, Stratified squamous

Match this epithelial tissue with it's function: columnar

Secretion and absorption

Match this epithelial tissue with it's function: cuboidal

Secretion

Match this epithelial tissue with it's function: Stratified squamous

Protection

Match this epithelial tissue with it's function: psuedostratified

respiratory mucus membranes

Match this epithelial tissue with it's function: squamous

Diffusion

What is the function of connective tissue?

Binds and supports other tissues

What is connective tissue's defining feature?

Cells scattered in extracellular matrix

Match connective tissues to functions.

Loose = binds/holds; Fibrous = tendons & ligaments; Bone = support; Adipose = energy storage; Cartilage = flexible support; Blood = transport, immunity, clotting

What is the function of muscle tissue?

Movement via contraction

What are the three muscle types?

Skeletal, smooth, cardiac

Match muscle types to locations.

Skeletal = skeleton; Smooth = organs; Cardiac = heart

What is the function of nervous tissue?

Receives, processes, and transmits information

What are the two major nervous tissue cell types?

Neurons and glia

What are the major parts of a neuron?

Dendrites, cell body, axon

What structures obtain oxygen in animals?

Gills and lungs

What are the three sources of water?

Drinking, food, metabolic water

What are suspension feeders?

Filter small food particles from water

What are substrate feeders?

Live in or on their food source

What are fluid feeders?

Obtain nutrient-rich fluids from living hosts

What are bulk feeders?

Consume relatively large pieces of food

Homodont vs heterodont?

Homodont = uniform teeth; Heterodont = specialized teeth

What are the four heterodont tooth types?

Incisors, canines, premolars, molars

What is digestion?

Breaking food into absorbable molecules

What are the four stages of food processing?

Ingestion → Digestion → Absorption → Elimination

Mechanical vs chemical digestion?

Mechanical = physical breakdown; Chemical = enzymatic breakdown

What are the accessory digestive glands?

Salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

Why can ruminants digest cellulose?

Cellulases from anaerobic bacteria and ciliates

What are the four compartments of a ruminant stomach?

Rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum

What is a ruminant?

An herbivorous mammal that uses microorganisms to help digest cellulose and has a four-compartment stomach

What is the main function of mitochondria?

Perform cellular respiration and generate ATP

What is cellular respiration?

A series of oxidation-reduction reactions that convert glucose into ATP

What is the overall equation for aerobic cellular respiration?

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP (36 ATP)

What are two ways to measure the rate of cellular respiration?

Oxygen consumed, glucose consumed, carbon dioxide produced, ATP produced, or water produced

What are NADH and FADH2?

Electron carriers that have accepted electrons and hydrogen atoms

What are NAD+ and FAD?

Electron acceptors that can accept electrons from other molecules

What are the three stages of aerobic cellular respiration?

Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Chain

What happens during glycolysis?

One glucose splits into two pyruvate molecules

Does glycolysis require oxygen?

No

Where does glycolysis occur?

Cytoplasm

What is the net ATP gain from glycolysis?

2 ATP

What are the products of glycolysis?

2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, net 2 ATP

What happens during the transition step?

Pyruvate is converted to Acetyl CoA, CO2 is released, and NADH is produced

What enters the Krebs cycle?

Acetyl CoA

Where does the Krebs cycle occur?

Mitochondrial matrix

Does the Krebs cycle require oxygen?

Yes

What are the major products of the Krebs cycle?

CO2, ATP, NADH, and FADH2

What is the primary function of the Krebs cycle?

Release CO2 and transfer energy to NADH and FADH2

Where does the Electron Transport Chain occur?

Inner mitochondrial membrane

What is the primary function of the Electron Transport Chain?

Produce most of the ATP during cellular respiration

Does the Electron Transport Chain require oxygen?

Yes

What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?

Oxygen

What is produced when oxygen accepts hydrogen and electrons?

Water

What is a proton gradient?

A buildup of hydrogen ions across a membrane

What process uses the proton gradient to make ATP?

Chemiosmosis (chemiosmotic phosphorylation)

Which stage produces the most ATP?

Electron Transport Chain

Which stage occurs in the cytoplasm?

Glycolysis

Which stages occur in the mitochondria?

Krebs cycle and Electron Transport Chain

Match the stages to locations.

Glycolysis = cytoplasm; Krebs cycle = mitochondrial matrix; ETC = inner mitochondrial membrane

Match the stages to oxygen requirements.

Glycolysis = no O2 required; Krebs cycle = requires O2; ETC = requires O2

What is the overall purpose of cellular respiration?

Convert energy stored in glucose into ATP

What is the immune system?

A network of cells, tissues, organs, chemicals, and fluids that recognizes self and defends against pathogens, foreign substances, and abnormal cells.

What is immunity?

The ability to resist or tolerate a pathogen that causes disease.

What are the two major types of immunity?

Innate immunity and adaptive (acquired) immunity.

Compare innate and adaptive immunity.

Innate = nonspecific, always present, acts early; Adaptive = specific to particular pathogens and has memory.

What is the lymphatic system?

A bridge between the circulatory system and the immune system.

What are the major lymphoid organs?

Red bone marrow, thymus, spleen.

What are lymph nodes?

Small organs along lymph vessels containing millions of white blood cells that release B and T cells into lymph.

What are the major white blood cell groups mentioned in this lecture?

Monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, natural killer cells, lymphocytes.

What are the major components of innate defenses?

Physical barriers, normal microbiota, macrophages, inflammation, fever.

What are physical barriers?

Skin, mucus, wax, tears.

What is the role of normal microbiota?

Help prevent pathogen colonization.

What do macrophages do?

Engulf and destroy invaders.

What is inflammation?

An immediate localized response to injury or pathogens.

What chemical is released by basophils during inflammation?

Histamine.

What does histamine do?

Dilates blood vessels.

What happens during inflammation?

White blood cells engulf pathogens and damaged cells.

What is a fever?

An increase in body temperature caused by cytokines acting on the hypothalamus.

What temperature qualifies as a fever?

100°F (38°C) or higher.

What is an antigen?

A molecule that stimulates an immune response by B and T cells.

What are most antigens?

Proteins and carbohydrates.

What is the key feature of adaptive immunity?

Specificity and immunological memory.

What are the two types of adaptive immune responses?

Cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity.

What is cell-mediated immunity?

Immunity carried out by cytotoxic T cells that destroy infected or defective body cells.

What is humoral immunity?

Immunity carried out by B cells and antibodies.

What do helper T cells do?

Release cytokines that activate cytotoxic T cells or B cells.

What is an antibody?

A protein produced by B cells that binds specific antigens.

What is the primary immune response?

The body's first response to an antigen.

What is the secondary immune response?

A faster and stronger response to a previously encountered antigen due to memory cells.

What are the two general ways to acquire immunity?

Passive immunity and active immunity.

What is passive immunity?

Receiving antibodies produced by another individual.

Examples of passive immunity?

Maternal antibodies via placenta or milk, antivenom, injected antibodies.

What is active immunity?

Producing your own antibodies after exposure to an antigen.

Examples of active immunity?

Recovering from chickenpox and vaccination.

What is a vaccine?

A substance that stimulates immunity without causing illness.

How do vaccines work?

They generate memory cells that produce a rapid secondary immune response upon later exposure.