Wage Determination in Competitive & Non - Competitive Markets (3)

When does labour market equilibrium occur ?

• Labour market equilibrium occurs where the demand for labour (D_L) is equal to the supply of labour (S_L)

  • The D_L is the demand by firms for workers

  • The S_L is the supply of labour by workers

What are individual firms ?

• Individual firms are price takers (Firms that have no market power and are unable to influence price - they take the 'going price' offered by the market) in the labour market as they have to accept the wage rate that workers are being paid in the industry

  • If they offer a lower wage, they will likely struggle to recruit workers

  • If they offer a higher wage there will be a large number of workers applying to work there

In the labour market for graphic designers, the equilibrium wage rate is W and the equilibrium quantity is Q. At this point the DL = SL - Diagram Analysis

• The market for graphic designers is in equilibrium where D_L = S_L 

• The equilibrium wage is W and the quantity of labour is Q

• There is no excess supply of labour

• There is no excess demand for labour

Why is the labour market important and why can changes to the condition in the labour market be traumatic ?

• The labour market is extremely important as jobs provide income to households, which directly impacts the standard of living in an economy

• Changes to conditions in the labour market can be traumatic as they may result in changes to wage rates, working conditions and/or the benefits associated with a particular job

  • These changes can possibly decrease the standard of livingfor many people

Current Labour Market Issues in the UK

Current Labour Market Issues in the UK

Skills shortages	Youth unemployment	Changes to retirement ages
In December 2021 more than 50% of firms surveyed reported difficulties in finding skilled workers A shortage of skilled labour means that firms are having to increase wage ratesto attract labour Firms are effectively poaching skilled labour from each other and there is a shortage of new skilled labour entering the market Some of the many labour markets experiencing shortages include nursing, engineering, pharmacies, secondary teaching, and graphic design	Unemployment for 16-24 year olds in April 2022 was at 10.8%compared to the general unemployment rate of 3.8% This means that it is nearly three times as likelyfor a young person to be unemployed Where possible employers prefer to hire workers with more experience as it can lead to higher productivity The education or skills gap is another reason for youth unemployment. Young people leave school without the skills that employers require	In 1995 the state retirement age was 60 for women and 65 for men In recent years,State Pension reform has been ongoing and the retirement age is gradually being increased to 68 for both men and women This means that workers are expected to remain in the workforce for longer One reason for the change is that with too many pensioners in the system, it is difficult for the government to fund monthly pension payments An improvement to life expectancy has meant there are more pensioners in the system
School leaving age	Zero-hour contracts	Temporary/flexible working
The earlier a student leaves school thelower their skill level Different policies are in place in England as compared with Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales In the latter three the school leaving age is 16 and there are no further conditions in place In England, students can leave school at 16 but have to do one of the following until they are 18 Stay in full-time education, e.g. at a college Start an apprenticeshipor traineeship Spend 20 hours or more a week working or volunteering, while in part-time education or training This aims to increase the skill level but also puts increased pressure on training providers There are not enough apprenticeships to match the demand	In 2022, nearly 1 million workers were on zero - hour contracts (A contract where the employer does not guarantee the worker any hours of work, but the employee has to be on call in case they are needed) which is more than five times the number in 2000 These contracts are extremely beneficial to employers Workers are not guaranteed work and only get paid for the work they do Workers do not receive many of the benefits that full-time employees receive - this reduces costsfor the firm  Some workers do enjoy the flexibility this provides as they can signcontracts with several firmsand sometimes enjoy a wider variety of work These contracts change unemployment figures as workers may not end up receiving much work, but are no longer counted as unemployed	Flexible working is working in such a way that it meets the employee's needs Covid19 has driven changes in thinking around where work happens Many workers now want to work from home Some employers prefer this as it lowers company costs Other employers are insisting on a return to the workplace as it is required, or they want more controlover their workforce There is an increasing focus on well-being and more people are opting to work part-time jobs or jobs that offer more flexibility

Why do the UK government intervene in the labour market ?

• The UK Government usually intervenes in the labour market in order to improve equity and avoid the exploitation of workers

  • A maximum wage is a government imposed price ceiling below the market price and is rarely used

    • There has been some discussion recently to set maximum wages for CEOs as their wages in early 2022 were 86x the average wage of full-time employees

    • If CEOs were paid less then the average pay per workermay increase

  • A minimum wage is a legally imposed wage level that employers must pay their workers

    • It is set above the market rate

    • The minimum wage/hour varies based on age

A national minimum wage (NMW1) is imposed above the market wage rate (We) at W1 - Diagram Analysis

• The market equilibrium wage and quantity for truck drivers in the UK is seen at W_eQ_e

• The UK government imposes a national minimum wage (NMW) at W₁

• Incentivised by higher wages, the supply of labour increases from Q_e to Q_s

• Facing higher production costs, the demand for labour by firms decreases from Q_e to Q_d

• This means that at a wage rate of W₁ there is excess supply of labour and the potential for real wage unemployment (Occurs when wages are set above the equilibrium level creating imperfections (excess supply) in the labour market) `equal to Q_dQ_s

The Uk government is what ?

• The UK government is the largest employer in the nation

  • In April 2022 there were 5.74 million public sector workers out of a total of 29.6 million employed workers (19.39%)
    

What is the UK government in many industries ?

• In many industries, the UK Government is the dominant employerand so is able to exercise monopsony power in setting the wage rates

• There are several implications of this public sector wage setting

  • If the government increases the NMW, they are significantly increasing their own wage bill

  • The private sector often uses public sector wages as a benchmark for their own wage calculations

  • If public sector wages increase and private sector ones do not, it can create tension between workers in the different sectors

  • Increases to public sector pay often have to be paid for by increases in tax rates for the entire working population

What happened in June 2022?

• In June 2022, public sector workers were striking due to issues with the pay increases offered by the Government

  • Worker's wages were frozen from 2010 to 2015 after the 2008 global financial crisis

  • This was followed by rampant inflation (A sustained increase in the average price level of goods/services in an economy) and wage increases well below the level of inflation

Policies to tackle labour market immobility

• There are many individual policies that the UK Government employs in order to reduce labour market immobility and together they help reduce the labour market failures

Examples Of Policies Used To Tackle Labour Market Immobility

Policy	Explanation
Improved education/training	Education improves skills and a wider skill base allows workers to move more easily between jobs which are not 100% identical
Targeting skills shortages	Identifying markets with specific skills shortages and training workers in those skills provides some opportunity for workers to switch between occupations
Subsidising employers	A per hire subsidy from the government provides an incentive for employers to take on workers without the necessary skills (and train them) - or workers from a specific demographic (e.g. disabled workers) and this improves occupational mobility
Relocation subsidies	Providing relocation subsidies to workers reduces both geographical and occupational immobility
Reducing information asymmetry	Setting up job centres and improving the flow of information between employers and the unemployed helps workers to quickly identify new opportunities
Reducing discrimination	Reducing discrimination in hiring practices will help some workers improve occupational mobility

The elasticity of demand for labour

• This refers to how responsive a firms demand for labour is to a change in the price of labour (wage rate)

  • If the demand for labour is elastic, then an increase in the wage rate will result in a more than proportional decrease in the quantity of labour demanded by firms

  • If the demand for labour is inelastic, then an increase in the wage rate will result in a less than proportional decrease in the quantity demanded of labour demanded by firms

• If demand is elastic firms will be very responsive to changes in wage rates, rapidly hiring workers when wages fall and firing workers when wages rise

• If demand is inelastic firms will have a much smaller response to rising or falling wages

Factors that influence PED of labour

Factors That Influence PED of Labour

The proportion of labour costs to total costs The higher these are then the more elastic the demand for labour will be; the lower these are then the more inelastic the demand for labour will be	Ease and cost of factor substitution If substituting capital for labour is easy and the cost is comparable to the increase in wages, the demand for labour will be more elastic - and vice versa
PED of the final product If the product being produced is price inelastic in demand, then the demand for labour is likely to be more inelastic i.e if wages rise, firms will pass on the increased costs of production to the final consumers	Time period In the short-run, demand for labour is likely to be more price inelastic i.e an increase in wages will have a less than proportional decrease in the quantity demanded. However, in the medium to long-term firms can research alternative methods of production and the demand for labour becomes more price elastic

The elasticity of supply of labour

• This refers to how responsive the supply of labour is to a change in the price of labour (wage rate)

  • If the supply of labour is elastic, then an increase in the wage rate will result in a more than proportional increase in the quantity of labour supplied 

  • If the supply of labour is inelastic, then an increase in the wage rate will result in a less than proportional increase in the quantity of labour supplied 

• In low skilled occupations the quantity of labour supplied is very responsive to a change in wage rates i.e. supply of labour is elastic

• Occupations which require a longer and higher level of training tend to have an inelastic supply of labour i.e even if wage rates increased significantly, there would be a less than proportional increase in the supply of labour in the short run