AP Psych Saver 1

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Biological perspective

Behavior is the result of the physical brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and individual differences in genes.

Behavioral perspective

Individuals learn behaviors through punishment, reinforcement, and observation.

Cognitive perspective

Behaviors stem from thoughts and memories (prior experiences).

Evolutionary perspective

Behaviors and mental processes exist in humans today because they were naturally selected for providing early humans with reproductive or survival advantage.

Humanistic perspective

In order to reach the full potential of behavior, individuals need the support and acceptance of others (unconditional positive regard).

Psychodynamic perspective

Behaviors are linked to unresolved, unconscious childhood conflicts from the past buried deep in the unconscious.

Socio-cultural perspective

Behaviors and mental processes are the result of the influence of culture, society, nationality, gender, religion, etc. Behavior is influenced by the norms of the various groups within society.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s beliefs and ignores contradictory information.

Hindsight bias

The “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon; the tendency for people to believe, after learning the outcome, that they would have foreseen or predicted it.

Overconfidence

A bias where individuals are more confident than they are correct.

Experiment

A research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables.

Independent variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated (cause).

Dependent variable

The factor being measured and observed (effect).

Random assignment

Participants have an equal chance of being placed in the experimental or control group.

Case study

A descriptive study; in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, small group, or rare phenomenon, with no manipulation.

Correlation

Helps predict how two variables relate to each other.

Meta-analysis

Combines and analyzes data from multiple independent studies on a specific topic to calculate an overall effect size and identify trends.

Naturalistic observation

Descriptive study; behavior is observed in its natural setting without any manipulation.

Hypothesis

An educated guess as a basis for research.

Falsifiability

The principle that a hypothesis must be able to be proven false in order to be considered scientifically valid.

Operational definition

How to measure a variable or define a term in a study.

Replication

The process of repeating a study to determine if findings are consistent.

Confounding variable

An outside factor that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Mean

The average.

Median

The middle number.

Mode

The most frequently occurring number.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

Normal curve

The mean, median, and mode are the same number.

Positive skew

Mode < median < mean; higher data values pull the tail to the right.

Negative skew

Mean < median < mode; lower data values pull the tail to the left.

Bimodal distribution

Two different values appear most frequently (modes) in the data set.

Standard deviation

Measures how much individual scores vary around the mean.

Percentile rank

Indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a particular score.

Regression toward the mean

The statistical tendency for extreme initial scores (very high or low) to move closer to the average (mean) upon subsequent measurements.

Sample

A smaller group of individuals selected from a larger population.

Population

The entire group that researchers are studying.

Random sampling

Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected in a study.

Convenience sampling

Non-random sampling technique where researchers select participants based on their immediate availability and willingness to participate.

Sampling bias

Occurs when certain members of a population have a higher or lower likelihood of being selected than others.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings from a specific sample can be applied to the broader population.

Experimental group

Receive the experimental treatment or independent variable.

Control group

Do not receive the experimental treatment or independent variable.

Placebo

An inactive substance that has no therapeutic effect.

Placebo effect

Where a person experiences an improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that is inert.

Single-blind procedure

Participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control groups.

Double-blind procedure

Neither the participants nor the researchers are aware of who is in the experimental or control groups.

Experimenter bias

Unconscious or unintentional tendency of researchers to influence the outcome of a study.

Social desirability bias

Tendency for respondents to answer questions in a way that portrays them in a favorable light.

Qualitative measures

Non-numerical data.

Quantitative measures

Numerical data.

Likert scale

Scales of 'agree' or 'strongly disagree'.

Scatterplot

Graph showing the strength, direction and relationship of two variables.

Correlation coefficient (r-value)

Determines the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Effect size

Magnitude/strength of a relationship.

Statistical significance (p-value)

Whether any differences observed between groups are 'real' or due to chance.

Directionality problem

A limitation of correlational research where it is unclear which variable causes the other.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Established to protect the rights and welfare of human and animal research subjects.

Informed consent/assent

Letting participants know about a study’s purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and right to withdraw.

Confidentiality

Keeping participant’s identity anonymous.

Confederate

An actor working with the researcher who poses as a participant.

Deception

Intentionally misleading or withholding information from participants regarding the true purpose of a study.

Debriefing

Inform participants about the study’s true purpose and any deception used.

Nature vs. nurture

The debate between the impact of environment and genetics.

Twin studies/adoption studies/family studies

Research designs used to determine the influence of genetics vs. environment on traits and behaviors.

Central nervous system

The brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

Part of the nervous system that consists of nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary bodily functions.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Relaxes the body.

Sympathetic nervous system

Arouses the body.

Somatic nervous system

Enables voluntary control over muscles.

Neurons

Basic building blocks of the brain.

Glial cells

Provide support, protection, and nourishment to neurons.

Reflex arc

An automatic, involuntary, and rapid response through the spinal cord.

Sensory neurons

Carry messages from the body to the brain.

Motor neurons

Carry messages from the brain to the body.

Interneurons

Carry messages between sensory and motor neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released in the synapse to keep a message/impulse going.

Dopamine

Involved in motor movement and alertness.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, hunger, sleep and arousal control.

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal.

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms you down.

Endorphins

Released when your body feels pain or stress.

Substance P

Signals pain.

Acetylcholine

Involved in motor movement, memory, and learning.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands in the endocrine system.

Adrenaline

Activates 'fight or flight' response in sympathetic nervous system.

Leptin

Signals fullness after eating.

Ghrelin

Signals hunger.

Melatonin

Regulates sleep.

Oxytocin

The 'love' hormone, associated with bonding, empathy, and trust.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemicals that temporarily alter brain function and perception.

Stimulants (caffeine, cocaine)

Speed up neural activity.

Depressants (alcohol)

Slow down neural activity.

Hallucinogens (marijuana)

Distort perceptions.

Opioids (heroin)

Reduce pain.

Neural firing

The process by which neurons transmit electrical signals throughout the nervous system.

Antagonist

Blocks a neurotransmitter from doing its job.

Agonist

Mimics a neurotransmitter and heightens its effects.

Reuptake inhibitors

Increase neurotransmitter concentration by blocking their reabsorption into the axon terminal.