A-Level Russian History: The impact of dictatorial regimes on the economy and society of the Russian Empire and the USSR

Thematic study

Why did economic change occur?

*to create a wealthier country, especially focused on heavy industry (iron, coal, engineering)

*to ‘catch up to the west’ - saw that Britain, France and Germany had built their economic power on industry

*to increase Russia’s military status and power (important after Crimean War and built up to war in the 1930s)

What industry reforms occurred under Alexander II?

*Reutern reforms (1862-1878) - encouraged foreign investment and expertise

*more railway construction - necessary for the transport of industry and greater communication

What industry reforms occurred under Alexander III?

*the Trans-Siberian railway line

*Vyshengradski-Medele’ev tariff 1891, exported large amounts of grain in order to increase money coming into the country

What problems were there with the reforms under Alexander III?

He was removed from his position due to the famine of 1891, as his policies had made the famine worse

What industry reforms occurred under Nicholas II?

*Witte and the ‘great spurt’ - increased foreign exports, loans and higher taxes to invest more in industry

*investment in heavy industry mainly managed by the state - increase in coal (doubled), iron, steel. Also development of new industries started - oil and chemicals

*increase in railway tracks

What were the problems with the industry reforms under Nicholas II?

*industry still behind the west’s (e.g. 10% of Britain’s in 1910). Not enough investment in engineering and textiles

*not enough investment or policies in agriculture

*WW1

*industry could not cope with the demands of war - lack of weapons, poor transport (needed for soldiers) and economy suffered due to high inflation, leading to food shortages and starvation

What industry reforms occurred under Lenin?

State capitalism - controlled the economy through the Supreme Economic Council (all businesses with over 10 employees had to be nationalised)

What were the problems with the industry reforms under Lenin?

*near collapse of the economy and industry, due to the focus on war

*War Communism - nationalisation and militarisation of labour (to provide weapons for the Civil War)

*NEP - denationalisation for small businesses (growth of consumerism) and some private ownership allowed. Use of foreign trade and expertise allowed again. Nepmen flourished

What industry reforms occurred under Stalin?

*return to the centralised planning under the seven 5 years plans. Aiming to make Russia a rival to the west and create autarky (Russia to be self sufficient)

*increase in electricity, iron, steel, oil and electricity. This seems justified with the outbreak of war and the need for weapons and transport. New towns emerged such as Magnitogorsk, specialising in iron and steel production

What were the problems of Stalin’s industry reforms?

*consumer industries were neglected

*targets were very high and difficult to meet - let to some death, arrests and suicides

*standard of living still poor - due to hours, low pay and working conditions

*6th and 7th 5 year plans under Khrushchev - more focus on consumer production, but targets were abandoned, as targets were too high, Overall rate of production slowed

What were the continuity/similarities between the Tsars and Communists?

*use of foreign investment and expertise under the Tsars and Lenin (and Stalin until the mid 1930a)

*focus by both on industry (especially iron, coal, steel etc),e.g. ‘Great Spurt’, NEP and Five Year Plans. Both aimed to increase Russia’s economy and power in comparison with the west. Agriculture was seen as serving the needs of industry

*Tsars and Communists were both influenced by war - A2 after Crimean War, Lenin after WW1, Stalin after WW2. Realisation that greater industry and technology needed for defence and status

What were the agricultural reforms under the Tsars?

Emancipation of the serfs 1861 - peasants were now free from servitude to the nobility and could buy their own land using redemption payments

What were the problems with Alex II agricultural reforms?

Export of large amounts of grain under Vyshnegradski, made the famine of 1891 worse

What were the problems with Alex III agricultural reforms?

Peasant Land Bank was introduced - peasants were able to buy more land due to low rates on loans. Some improvements

What were the problems of Nicholas II agricultural reforms?

*Stolypin’s reforms through the ‘wager on the strong’ policy - peasants encouraged to buy more land through Land Banks, to consolidate ‘strips’ into larger small holdings of land

*led to the rise of Kulaks/wealthier peasants - although they had benefitted, still believed the best land was being kept for the elite

*by 1914, 2 million peasants had moved to towns and cities

What agricultural reforms occurred under Lenin?

Decree on Land - peasants were able to seize land and then redistributed by local soviets

What were the problems of agricultural reforms under Lenin?

*forced grain requisitioning through War Communism to feed the Red Army.

*improvement under NEP - peasants were able to sell surplus policies

What were the agricultural policies under Stalin?

*removal of NEP - introduction of collectivisation (farms became larger collective farms - grain taken by the state, restriction on crops etc)

*more success in the 1930’s (by 1937 - 97% were collectivised)

*Kulaks were persecuted for grain hoarding and seen as a potential threat

*Kolkhozy farms: owned by the state but worked on by peasants, or Sovkhozy farms: owned by the state and worked on by state employees

*centralised control through the MTS - loaned tractors, distributed and collected grain, payment and controlled what farmers could keep

What were the problems of Stalin’s agricultural polices?

*1932-34 famine was made worse by the grain requisitioning

*peasants also disliked the control over what they could produce and the removal of the Mir in 1930 damaged their traditions

However, where was there some improvements for peasants?

From the Special Charter or 1935, which increased payments and gave more legal security - shows some concession from Stalin

What were the agricultural improvements under Stalin?

Increased payments for what the state took, less produce had to be handed over, less taxes, more electricity

What were the successes of the Virgin Lands campaign under Khrushchev?

Greater use of uncultivated land in Kazakhstan to increase production of wheat

What were the problems of the Virgin Lands campaign?

Land was overused and not enough crop rotation - therefore, this made the drought of 1963 even worse and Khrushchev was blamed on the famine

What was the population growth of Russian Empire?

*1858 - 74 million

*1960 - 212 million

Why did social change occur?

*rising birth rate (more marriage, economic improvements etc) and lower death rate (except in times of war and famine)

*many peasants moved to towns and cities (growth of urban workers)

*growth of middle class (Tsars) - due to education reforms, emancipation, Zemstva and opportunities in industry

*decline of nobility - loss of position after emancipation, sold off land

*Communists - greater emphasis on workers - soviets and significance in 5 Year Plans

How many people lived in towns and cities by 1900 and what did this mean?

Only 15% - therefore industry was undeveloped still

However, what were peasants increasingly doing?

Moving to the cities for work industry. Some industrial workers became very skilled and therefore in great demand

Where was there other changes to the social structure?

Rise of the middle class (professionals and commercial'/new businesses/trade) - still only 2 million in 1914, but seen as a threat to nobility

What was the decline in nobility due to?

Spending and rise of the middle class economic power

What had they sold a lot of?

Land to peasants after the emancipation, therefore had lost some of their influence

What were the changes to social structure under Communism?

*in theory, Communism should be a classless society - however, a hierarchy did emerge, through those involved in the bureaucracy/ government departments, with an elite group at the top

*even for workers, some became technical experts or managers and this gave them extra privileges

*therefore, these elements of hierarchy show continuity with the Tsars

What were the education reforms under Alex II?

*initially, education became under the control of the Zemstva in rural areas - however, by 1877, Ministry of Education took control and inspectors introduced

*also an increase in children attending secondary schools - even for the poor

What were the education reforms under Alex III?

*reversed some of Alex II’s reforms - tighter control of education by the Church, greater restrictions and censorship for Universities

*lower class children banned from attending secondary school (shows restrictions and indoctrination)

What were the education reforms under Nicholas II?

Stolypin banned meetings at University that were not academic (shows control and concern over opposition)

What were the overall improvements in education under the Tsars?

*increase in children attending primary schools (23,000 in 1880 to 81,000 in 1914)

*shows improvements for lower class children - but motivated by need to industrialise and catch up with western countries

What were the improvements of education under the Communists?

*1930 - attendance at school was compulsory until the age of 12

*increase for those attending secondary schools to 6.9 million by 1932

*Stalin scrapped school fees in 1939

*adult literacy also encouraged through classes and organisation through trade unions

*new vocational schools and institutes for older students - engineering, medicine, etc. Military colleges also created - to create future leaders

However, what were the problems of education under the Communists?

*standards of education for lower class children was basic - reading, writing, basic maths and indoctrinated with Stalinist ideas

*therefore, elitism still existed and education served to enforce and maintain Communist ideas

By 1900, what was the 15% of Russians living in towns and cities like in comparison to that of Britain?

80%

What problems emerged from the rapid pace of urbanisation?

*towns and cities quickly became overcrowded, with poor housing and sanitation

*diseases such as Cholera (spread by dirty water) were common

What did many towns not have?

Electricity, gas or piped water

However, what improvements did Nicholas II make to this?

A sewerage system was installed in St Petersburg in 1911 after outbreaks of Cholera - this shows some reform, however, partly due to the fact that cholera affected all classes

What were the problems with factories?

*located on the edge of towns and cities, therefore worker ‘barracks’ were also built there

*these were also quickly built and therefore also overcrowded and insanitary

*some involved in smaller industries, even slept in their workshops

Therefore, under the Tsars, what did many workers face?

Very harsh and life threatening living conditions

What was the improvements to urban housing under the Communists?

After the Decree on Peace (1918), the Bolsheviks seized property and handed to the proletariat (workers) - this was organised by the Soviets. Some improvement - but short lived

What were the problems to urban housing under Stalin?

*overcrowding returned in the 1930s, with 25% of families living in 1 room. 25% also lived in communal dormitories. Stalin allocated space, rather than rooms to individuals and families

*Stalin also built high rise tenements - but bathrooms and kitchens were shared. Stalin argued that more investment needed to be put into industry and the five year plans - rather than social projects such as housing

*WW2 - over 25 million became homeless due to invasion and bombs. Stalin made some attempt to rebuild after the war - but it was not enough

What were the improvements of urban housing under Khrushchev?

*1955-1964 - the housing stock doubled and communal living was abandoned

*morale and better living standards had increased. However, those involved in Housing cooperatives (organisations of employees from the same union), often had the best housing, these were often wealthier professionals who could afford to pay deposits

What was rural housing like under the Tsars and early communism?

Most peasants lived in wooden hut with 1 room, overcrowded with people and animals. It was also cols and damp - but very cheap to make

What was rural housing like under Stalin and Khrushchev?

‘Special’ housing blocks were built for some peasants on the edge of collective farms. However, these also became overcrowded and had public health problems

Overall what was there little in from both Tsars and Communists?

Little improvements in rural housing

What were the changes to rural conditions under the Tsars?

*Emancipation Edict 1861 - freed serves from servitude to the nobility

*Peasant Land Banks - able to buy more land at low rates

*Stolypin’s ‘wager on the strong’ - enabled peasants to buy more land and consolidate strips of land into larger farms. Led to creation of the Kulaks (able to sell surplus and supplies)

What were the problems of the Emancipation Edict 1861?

Redemption payments kept many tied to the land and the Mir restricted activities

What were the problems of rural conditions under Lenin?

Under War Communism, grain was requisitioned by the Cheka and made worse by famine. Kulaks were also persecuted for suspected grain hoarding

What were the improvements of rural conditions under Lenin?

*under NEP, grain requisitioning stopped and peasants were able to sell surplus supplies

*Kulaks were also seen as more educated and cultured - but still had to pay higher taxes

What were the improvements of rural conditions under Stalin?

*collectivisation: majority worked in larger, state run farms. Kulaks were persecuted as potential opposition - e.g. many exiled or arrested

*grain was exported to pay for investment into industry - often led to shortages for peasants and workers. Similar to Tsars

What were the improvements to urban conditions under the Tsars?

*1882 Factory Inspectors introduced under Alex III - children under 12 not allowed to work there

*1896 11 hour day and no work on Sunday’s (Alex II)

*1903 Workers insurance scheme introduced

*1914 Statutory holidays were introduced and most workers working 9-10 hours

What were the problems of urban conditions under the Tsars?

Factories remained dangerous and unhealthy - too few inspectors

What were the changes of urban conditions under Lenin?

1920 Rabkrin (Workers and Peasants Inspectorate) introduced - but mainly just discussion, power over the workers lay with Lenin

What where the changed to urban conditions under Stalin?

*generally conditions worsened - overall there was an increase in hours (10-12)

*low pay and harsh punishments for not meeting targets or seen as ‘wreckers’ (fines, arrests, etc)

What were the improvements under Stalin?

By 1949, due to success of First Five Year Plan - average working day went down to 7 hours and bonus schemes were introduced

What were the changed to urban conditions under Khrushchev?

Less oppression and punishments for workers. 7 hours day became the norm.

What were the causes of the 1893 famine under Alexander II?

*poor weather

*Medele’ev tariff (higher taxes on consumer goods) - meant peasants sold off more grain to pay for the tax (much of it was sold abroad)

What were the effects of the 1893 famine (Alex III)?

*350,000 people died

*Vyshnegradskii was blamed and replaced by Witte as Finance Minister

What were the causes of the 1914-1918 famine?

*disruption to trade

*transport and food supplies to soldiers

*Treaty of Brest-Litovsk made the situation worse as grain producing land in the Ukraine was lost

What were the causes of the 1921 famine (Lenin)?

*poor winter and then drought

*destruction of infrastructure and some railways due to the Civil War made transporting food even worse

*grain requisitioning due to War Communism

What were the causes of the 1932-1934 famine (Stalin)?

*poor weather, made worse by collectivisation and forced grain requisitioning

*Stalin’s actions made the situation worse - death penalty for stealing grain

What were the similarities between Tsars and Communists about famine?

*both directed more food away from the countryside to feed the urban population (seen as needed for industry) - often causing shortages

*Tsars (Witte under Nicholas II) and Stalin both exported grain to finance industry - often made food shortages worse

What was the impact of WW2 on famine?

*overall the food and diet of workers worsened under the Communists, however food production had increased by the late 1930s

*during the war, collectivisation was relaxed and due to fewer restrictions - output rose. However, another famine occurred in 1947

What was famine like under Khrushchev?

Virgin Land Scheme failed to increase production enough and food still had to be imported. Situation was made worse by shortages in 1962/3

What did the restrictions created due to collectivisation mean?

There was little motive for innovation or production of surplus supplies - the amount of food produced could not meet the rising demands of a higher and more urban population

What was voting like under the Tsars?

*Zemstvas (regional councils) created in 1864 - to represent local people. Members were elected - but chosen based on property qualifications (land owners, wealthier peasants)

*National Duma from 1905 - elections (however the electoral college system of voting meant that restrictions were put on the votes of peasants and workers)

What was voting like under the Communists?

*elections did exist but limited - no other parties allowed

*elections to Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars/Ministers) were through a layered system - village soviets at the bottom

*Central Committee was elected - but only met twice a year

What were political parties and pressure groups like under the Tsars?

Weren’t allowed before 1905 but they did exist and were monitored and spied on by the Okhrana

When were Trade Unions allowed?

After 1905 - e.g. organised strikes

How did the Tsars react to the Soviets and what did this therefore represent?

Tolerated by the Tsars and even became part of the ‘dual authority’ with the PG of 1917. Therefore some elements of representation and democracy present before 1917

What were political parties and pressure groups under the Communists?

*only the Russian Communist Party was allowed to exist

*Trade Unions still existed under Communism - but controlled and integrated into the Communist system

*no real representation - all controlled by the Communists (fear of opposition)

How did both Tsars and Communists react to censorship?

Controlled the press, media and publications - to remove and restrict any opposition thoughts or alternatives to the Tsarist or Communist regime

What was censorship like under Nicholas II?

Some relaxation, e.g. Kopek newspaper (created a voice for the workers)

What was censorship like under Khruschev?

Some relaxation of censorship for writers and artists, but the main newspapers e.g. Pravda were still communist controlled

What was religion like under the Tsars?

*Russian Orthodox Church controlled religion and used to maintain power of the Tsar

*other religious groups (Catholic, Jews, Muslims etc) were tolerated but encouraged to convert

What was religion like under the Communists?

*overall restrictions and repression. ‘Decree on the Separation of the Church from the State and School from the Church’ - withdrew state subsidies and prevented religious groups from owning property

*Stalin closed more churches and some clergy were included in the purges

*1958 (Khrushchev) religion was declared unscientific and therefore a detriment to Russia

Overall where was there greater repression and persecution and why?

Under the Communists - as it challenged issues of private property and clergy were seen as potential opposition. Believed that religious ideas should be replaced with devotion to Communism

Overall, what did Tsars and Communists want?

To increase industrial output and to compete with western powers

When was this often initiated?

After key events - Crimean War, WW1 and 2 - whereby fears of inefficiency were also connected to fears regarding defence (therefore, industry needed)

What were the most significant times for industrialisation?

The ‘Great Spurt’ under Nicholas II, NEP under Lenin and the Five Year Plans under Stalin