Sports Psychology Ex3

the 3rd exam

Anxiety Self Awareness

Self awareness is a key skill for athletes to develop because the more you understand yourself, the better you can control yourself.

Once your aware of your optimal arousal, you can employ arousal regulation (reduction, maintenance, and induction)

“It’s not a case of getting rid of the butterflies, it’s a question of getting them to fly in formation.”

Why Regulate Arousal?

Athletes who don’t effectively cope with stress may experience decreases in performance as well as mental and physical distress

Athletes need to be able to regulate arousal to stay focused and in control

Anxiety Reducing Techniques

1. Somatic Anxiety Reduction

2. Cognitive Anxiety Reduction

3. Multimodal anxiety reduction packages

Somatic Anxiety Reduction

Crucial for athletes well being and performance

1. Progressive Relaxation:

Learn to feel the tension in your muscles and then to let go of the tension.

Over the course of time, people are able to identify the different levels of tension. This is akin to a weightlifter who can identify a weight be feeling it.

2. Breath Control:

When you are under pressure and tense, your breathing is short, shallow, and irregular.

When you are calm, confident, and in control, your breathing is smooth, deep, and rhythmic

3. Biofeedback:

Becoming more aware of your autonomic nervous system and learning to control your physiological and autonomic responses by receiving physiological feedback not normally available

Cognitive Anxiety Reduction

Relaxation responses teaches individuals to quiet the mind, concentrate, and reduce muscle tension by applying the elements of meditation.

Multimodal Anxiety Reduction:

Athletes encounter multiple types of anxiety problems in sports. This takes into account factors such as appraisal, coping, and various stressors

Stress inoculation Training (SIT)

An individual is exposed to and learns to cope with stress (via productive thoughts, mental images, and self—statements) in increasing amounts, thereby enhancing his or her immunity to stress."

• An approach used to enhance performance under stress.

4 Steps to Stress Inoculation Training

1. Prepare for the stressor (“It’s going to be rough; keep your cool.”)

2. Control and handle the stressor (“Keep your cool since he’s losing his cool.”)

3. Cope with feelings of being overwhelmed (“Keep focused; what do you have to do next”)

4. Evaluate coping efforts (“You handled yourself well)

Hypnosis

Altered state of consciousness that can be induced by a procedure in which a person is in an unusually relaxed state and responds to suggestions designed to alter perceptions, feelings, thoughts, and actions

Researchers agree that:

1. The more open individuals are to receiving suggestions, the more likely they are to benefit from suggestions given under hypnosis.

2. The deeper the trance, the more likely it is that suggestions given under hypnosis will be effective.

Stages of Hypnosis

• Induction Phase

• Hypnotic Phase

• Walking Phase

• Posthypnotic Phase

• Lowering Arousal

• Suggestions

• Raising arousal

• Everyday life

Matching Hypothesis

A treatment approach where symptoms of somatic anxiety (physical anxiety) are primarily addressed with physical relaxation techniques.

While symptoms of cognitive anxiety (mental anxiety) are treated with mental relaxation methods.

Predictions:

• Cognitive anxiety should be treated with mental relaxation

• Somatic anxiety should be treated with physical relaxation

• If you are not sure what type of anxiety is most problematic, however, use a multimodal technique

Coping

A process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and or/internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources.

Researchers differentiate between two types of coping:

1. Problem focused

2. Emotion focused

Coping Categories

Problem Focused Coping:

Athletes focus on addressing the root causes of stress or pressure. They actively seek solutions, make plans, and take action. ( Adjusting training routines, refining skills)

• Use problem focused coping when stressful situations can be changed

Emotion Focused Coping:

Managing emotional responses to stressors. Athletes use techniques to regulate their emotions and reduce anxiety. (relaxation exercises, positive self talk)

• Use emotion focused coping when situations are not amendable to change

Withdrawal coping

Athletes ceasing their efforts to achieve their goal

• Can occur due to burnout, exhaustion, reduced accomplishment, or devaluation of sport.

Ex) You know you have to study, but decide to push it off till later

Corrective Experiences

Events that challenge an athlete’s fears or expectations. This can lead to new outcomes and breakthroughs

• Help athletes engage in new behaviors, adopt healthier ways of relating, develop positive self views, and to process previous feelings, can reduce anxiety, lead to future success.

Imagery

Form of simulation that involves recalling pieces of information stored from experience and shaping those pieces into meaningful images

Equivalent terms are visualization, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice, and mental practice

Imagery involves creating or re—creating an experience in your mind

Imagery involves all the senses: Visual, Kinesthetic, auditory, tactile, olfactory

• The Kinsethetic sense is particularly important for athletes

• Imagery can also involve moods and emotions

Imagery in Sports: Where, When, Why, And What

Where: Athletes employ imagery more in competition than in training

When: Athletes use imagery before, during, and after practice; outside of practice; before, during, or after competition; and for injury rehabilitation.

Why: For motivational and cognitive functions

Functions of Imagery: Motivational

Motivational general mastery:

• Focuses on enhancing mental toughness, confidence, and maintaining control. Athletes used this to stay focused, confident, and mentally tough during performance.

Motivational General Arousal

• Regulate emotions and arousal levels. Use for psyching up or relaxing.

Functions of Imagery: Cognitive

Cognitive Specific

• Involves visualizing specific skills or actions related to performance

• Used to rehearse precise movements such as a follow thru shot in basketball or the perfect golf swing

Cognitive General

• Focuses on broader aspects, including strategies, game plans, or routines

• Used to envision overall game strategies, such as fast break or tactical approaches in soccer

Imagery Perspective

Internal Perspective is visualizing the execution of a skill from your own vantage point (as if you had a camera on your head)

External perspective is visualizing yourself form the perspective of an outside observer (as if you were watching yourself in a movie)

Whether a person uses an internal or external image will depend on what the athlete feels comfortable with and what sport or skill they are performing.

Ex) If you are a figure skater, you need to consider what your performance will look like to a judge

How Imagery works: Five Theories

1. Psychoneuromuscular Theory

2. Symbolic Learning Theory

3. Bioinformational Theory

4. Psychological Skills Explanations

Psychoneuromuscular Theory

Essentially, the brain sends impulses to the muscles during imagery, mimicking the patterns used during actual movement. These impulses are identical to those causing muscle contraction during physical performance, but at a lower intensity.

When you are learning a skill, you are hard wiring it into your brain.

• In the beginning you will need to make a conscious effort to perform the skill. After a while, it will become automatic.

• Once it is performed automatically, you will not be sure how you are doing it

Ex) Changing lanes in a car

By mentally rehearsing movements, athletes can make subtle adjustments to their motor behaviors based on the feedback received from the imagined muscle innervation

Symbolic Learning Theory

Suggests that imagery can assist individuals in understanding their movements. It functions as a (coding system) helping people acquire and comprehend movement patterns.

• By mentally rehearsing movements, they create a mental blueprint for specific actions.

Bioinformational Theory

When you vividly imagine performing a skill, your brain activates similar neural pathways as if you were physically executing the action.

• Mental image created by an individual is stored in the long term memory of the brain as an organized set of stimulus propositions linked to response propositions.

By mentally rehearsing movements, they create a blueprint for effective physical performance.

• Ex) A competitive swimmer might imagine her surroundings and opponents before diving into the pool. This coding helps bridge the gap between mental visualization and actual execution.

Psychological Skills Hypothesis

Imagery functions by developing and refining psychological skills. These skills includes:

• Improved Concentration

• Reduced Anxiety

• Enhanced Confidence

Basically imagery works through these psychological mechanisms to facilitate performance and well being. It aligns with the idea that specific skills can be learned and honed, leading to positive outcomes.

2 Keys to Effective Imagery

Vividness: When crafting mental images, aim for vividness. Engage all your senses like sight, sound, smell,

Ex) Got a presentation? imagine it going well, including the smell of the room and the feel of the podium.

Controllability: Having a conscious control over your mental images. Instead of letting your mind wonder aimlessly, direct it purposefully.

Ex) Wanna lose 50 pounds, visualize the journey

Self Confidence

Self-confidence is the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior.

Self confidence can be both dispositional and statelike.

Dispositional Self—Confidence

Refers to an individuals consistent and stable level of confidence across various situations and over time.

• It’s a trait and reflects the general belief in one’s abilities, regardless of specific circumstances.

State Self—Confidence

The belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed

Refers to an individuals self evaluation in a particular moment, influenced by specific situations or emotions.

• Unlike trait, state self esteem fluctuates based on immediate circumstances

Benefits of Self Confidence

• Arouses positive emotions

• Facilitates concentration

• Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging goals

• Increases effort

• Affects game strategies (play to win versus play to lose)

• Affects psychological momentum

• Affects performance

Optimal Level of Self Confidence

Optimal confidence involves being so convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so

• Lack of confidence or self doubts create anxiety, break concentration, and cause indecisiveness.

Overconfidence (false confidence) causes you to prepare less than you need to in order to perform

Self Fulfilling Prophecy

Self fulfilling prophecy: Expecting something to happen actually helps cause it to happen

Negative self fulfilling prophecy: When expectations are negative or low, the individual may unconsciously fulfill those expectations by underperforming.

• Our beliefs about others can shape their outcomes

The Pygmalion Effect named after a Greek sculptor, who loved himself so much that he made a statue, which he loved on for so long that it became real.

• This effect refers to how expectations whether high or low can significantly impact an individual’s performance in a given area.

How Expectations Influence Performance

Expectations play a critical role in the behavioral change process. Positive expectations of success produce positive effects in many fields, including sport.

Self expectations and performance: The expectation of beating a tough opponent or successfully performing a difficult skill can produce exceptional performance as psychological barriers are overcome.

• Ex) A teacher’s or coach’s expectations can alter a student’s or athlete’s feelings and performance

Coaches Expectations and Athletes Performance: Stage 1

Coaches form expectations based on:

• Personal cues (gender, race, body size)

• Performance information (skill tests, practice behaviors)

Problems occur when inaccurate expectations (too high or too low) are formed

Coaches Expectations and Athletes Performance: Stage 2

Coaches’ expectations influence their behavior regarding the:

• Frequency and quality of coach—athlete interactions

• quantity and quality of instruction

• type and frequency of feedback

Coaches Expectations and Athletes Performance: Stage 3

Coaches’ behaviors affect athletes’ performance by causing low—expectancy performance to perform more poorly because of less reinforcement, less playing time, less confidence, and attributions to low ability

Coaches Expectations and Athletes Performance: Stage 4

Athlete performance confirms the coaches’ original expectations

Performance results then feed back into stage 1 of the coaches expectations and athlete performance process

Bandura’s Self Efficacy Theory

Concept created by Bandura, a psychologist.

Self efficacy refers to an individuals belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to achieve specific outcomes

• The confidence we have in our ability to influence events and control our environments

Sources of Efficacy

1. Performance Accomplishments

Most successful source. When we succeed, our self efficacy grows. These experiences provide evidence of our capability.

2. Vicarious Experiences

If we witness someone similar to us succeed, we believe we can do it as well

3. Verbal Persuasions, Instructions, and Encouragement

Positive reinforcement boosts our confidence

4. Physiological States

Influence self efficacy when they are associated with negative physiological arousal, poor performance, and perceived failure

5. Emotional States

Anxiety or calmness influences our beliefs about our abilities

Modeling (Vicarious Experiences)

Involve observing other people successfully completing a task.

Ex) Think of it as learning from a skilled pianist. Their mastery inspires us to believe in our own abilities.

Subjective vs. Objective goals

Subjective: Subjective goals are influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions. Typically based on individual perspectives and preferences.

• Like colors on an artist’s palette — personal, varied, and open to interpretation

Objective: Objectives goals are quantifiable, measurable, and based on observable facts. They are neutral, real, and verifiable facts.

• Precise coordinates on a map — clear, measurable, and factual

Process Performance and Outcome Goals

Process Goals: Focus on the actions an individual must engage in during performance to execute or perform well — Technique

Performance goals: Focus on achieving standards of performance or objectives independently of other competitions (how fast you can run, how high you can jump)

Outcome goals: Focus on a competitive result of an event (beating someone)

Outcome, performance, and process goals all play roles in behavior change. The key is knowing where to focus each goal.

• Don’t focus all your attention on outcome goals.

• Use a combination of all three types of goals

Why Goal Setting Works

Goals can influence performance indirectly by affecting psychological factors, such as anxiety, confidence, and satisfaction

Direct mechanistic explanation:

Direct attention to the important elements of the skill can mobilize performers efforts, prolong performers persistence, and can foster the development of new learning strategies

Athletes who set performance (rather than outcome) goals have less anxiety and more confidence and satisfaction

Principles of Goal Setting

• Set specific goals — never say “do your best”

  • Specific goals, as compared with general goals, are most effective for producing change in behavior

  • General goal: Reduce cholesterol

  • Specific goal: Reduce cholesterol from 290 to 200 by….

• Set moderately difficult but realistic goals

  • Specific goal: Reduce cholesterol from 290 to 200 by….

• Set long and short term goals (long term first)

  • Use goal staircases that link long and short term goals

• Set performance and process goals as well as outcome goals

  • For every outcome goal, set several performance and process goals that will lead to the desired outcome

• Record goals

  • Ink it, don’t think it

• Develop goal achievement strategies

  • Strategies include how much and how often things will be done in an effort to achieve a goal. Be flexible, however.

• Consider participants personalities and motivations

  • Consider factors such as achievement motivation, stages of achievement motivation, social comparison, task or ego orientation, and dispositional hope when setting goals

  • Motivational climate also influences goal setting effectiveness

• Foster an individual’s goal commitment

  • Promote goal commitment by encouraging progress and proving consistent feedback. Solicit the athlete’s or exerciser’s input.

• Provide goal support

  • Enlist support from significant others to make goal setting effective

• Provide evaluation of and feedback about goals

  • Goal evaluation and feedback are essential parts of facilitating behavioral change via goal setting

Common Problems in Goal Setting

• Convincing students, athletes, and exercisers to set goals

• Failing to set specific goals

• Setting too many goals too soon

• Failing to adjust goals

• Failure to recognize individuals differences

• not providing goal follow ups and evaluation