psych 4.1-4.3

Attribution theory

how people interpret and explain the causes of behaviors, which helps us recognize our own thought processes through internal and external factors, and forming biases

Dispositional attributions

internal attribution which includes one’s intelligence, attitude, or personality

Situational attributions

external attributions which include environmental factors that impact an individual (like the weather, or other world events)

optimistic explanatory style

people believe that bad events are considered as temporary problems, and they put the blame on external factors (situational)

Pessimistic explanatory style

people with pessimistic explanatory style believe that bad events are more permanent problems, and they put the blame on internal factors (dispositional)

Actor/observer bias

Using situation attributions to explain our own actions but using dispositional attributions to explain someone else’s actions

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency to overemphasize internal factors when judging others behaviors, and underestimating the importance of situational factors.

Self-serving bias

When succeeding in something, we attribute that success to our internal factors (dispositional) but if we fail, we attribute that to external factors (situational)

Internal locus of control

one believes that their actions directly impact what happens to them in the future (increased effort)

External locus of control

Outside/situational factors are what determine outcomes of different events in their lives (can cause learned helplessness and lack of effort)

Person perception

How individuals form impressions of others and even themselves

Mere exposure effect

When an individual is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus, causing them to like or favor the stimulus more and more overtime (like listening to a new song; you don’t like it at first but when you listen to it more continuously, you start to like it more)

Self-fulfilling prophecy

When someone’s expectation influences their behavior in a way that cause those expectations to come true. Can cause a cycle to form which can impact relationships, achievements, and self esteem (you don’t like someone because you think they’re scary so you act avoidant. Other person thinks you just don’t like them so they also do not interact with you)

Upward social comparison

When an individual compares themselves to someone they believe is better off; encourages improvement but if the gap is too big, it causes them to feel discouraged.

Downward social comparison

When an individual compares themselves to someone they believe is worse off, causing them to feel better about their own situation and can reduce motivation to improve.

Relative deprivation

Feeling that an individual is missing out on resources, opportunities, or are generally worse off than others (not about lacking basic needs but about your situation and how you compare it to others)

Stereotype

Generalized beliefs that about a group of people

Cognitive load

The total amount of mental effort being used in a person’s working memory.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of individuals based on their group (refers to actions against a group/people)

Prejudice

Preconceived negative attitudes toward a group and its members (refers to biased thinking about a group/people)

Implicit attitudes

Often unconscious and individuals may not even be aware that they hold these beliefs

Just world phenomenon

tendency for people to believe that the world is just and that things are the way they are for a reason (people get what they deserve)

out-group homogeneity bias

tendency of one to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are.

in group homogeneity bias

tendency to favor and support those who are in our own group and be more critical of those who aren’t

Ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others, often leading to prejudice and discrimination against other cultures.

Belief perseverance

Tendency to maintain a belief despite new information or evidence that clearly contradicts it.

Confirmation bias

Tendency for someone to focus on information that their preexisting views and beliefs support while disregarding evidence that contradicts them.

Cognitive dissonance

Mental discomfort or tension that comes from when an individual has two conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors (eg. caring about the environment but still emitting a lot of gas because you drive a lot)

Social norms

Unwritten rules or expectations that guide people in society.

Normative social influence

Tendency to conform or be influenced to fit into group expectations for the desire of being liked or accepted by that group.

Informational social influence

when individuals conform because they believe others have more accurate information (choosing answer A because someone smart also chose that answer)

Persuasion

Process of actively changing someone’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors

Elaboration likelihood model

explains how people are persuaded, stating that people are either persuaded through central route, or peripheral route to persuasion.

Central route to persuasion

Persuasion asked on facts (takes more time and elaboration)

Peripheral route to persuasion

uses emotions to persuade by using quick thinking, and taking less time. Can often disregard logical solutions.

Halo effect

cognitive bias where our overall impressions of someone influences how we perceive them (not logical, and based on emotion)

Foot in the door

small request is made first, and requests gradually get more unreasonable to increase the likelihood of large request to be fulfilled (asking for a hangout —> eventually asking for a sleepover)

Door in face

Initial request is most unreasonable, so when smaller request is made, it is more likely to be fulfilled (charities asking for you to donate $100, but when you say no they ask for $25 instead which your are more likely to actually give)

Conformity

Tendency for someone to align their behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes with eh norms/standards of a group

Obedience

How individuals respond to authority figures (the more profession/ authority like, the more susceptible they are to obeying their requests)

Individualism

Emphasizes individual identity by focusing on their own accomplishments (most likely to resist conformity in order to focus on their own goals)

Collectivism

Cultural value that prioritizes group goals rather than individual goals (pursuing medical career over personal interests because it is more beneficial for your family)

Multiculturalism

Multiple cultural groups coexists within a society (focuses on diversity which enables more openness and acceptance)

Group polarization

Tendency for individual’s opinions, thoughts, and/or actions to become more extreme in a group (sports fans become more antagonizing towards rival team when together, rather then when alone)

Groupthink

a group prioritizes consensus over critical evaluation, often leading to poor decision making.

Diffusion of responsibility

Someone feels less personally accountable and responsible for taking action or helping when there are others present (man falls but you dont help because there are other people around)

Social loafing

When people are in groups, they end up trying less, assuming they can rely on others to complete the work for them.

Deindividualization

When in a group, individual loses their sense of self awareness/ personal accountability because they feel more anonymous in the group (going to concert acting rowdy vs. when alone you are more chill)

Social facilitation

When a group of people are together, they perform better because they are being observed by others (opp of social loafing; cross country athletes perform better at meets than in practice)

False consensus effect

Cognitive bias which causes someone to overestimate how others think/act, causing them to believe others must have the same thoughts as them (I think a certain movie in a series is the worst, so I assume all people think the same)

Superordinate goals

Requires cooperation between groups/individuals in order to reduce conflict by encouraging collaborative efforts towards one common goal (goal is often large, requiring more help)

Social traps

Individuals/groups act in their own short term interest, disregarding long term, negative outcomes (countries protecting natural resources but ultimately losing economic benefits)

Industrial organizational psychologists

They specialize in how human behavior in work settings influence people. Their main goals are to maximize workplace culture to better influence harder work, communication and create a more positive work environment.

Burnout

Physical/mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress or overworking.

Altruism

One does selfless acts for the well being of others without expecting any personal reward (donating to a charity anonymously)

Prosocial

Any action that is intended to benefit others like helping, comforting, or sharing with others (helping classmate understand material before test)

Social debt

expectation that helping someone creates an obligation for them to return the favor (i lended friend some money, and she feels the need to help me in the future if i need it)

Social reciprocity norm

expectation that people have when doing something for others, they expect something in return (i helped friend move into her house, so i expect her to do the same for me)

Social responsibility norm

An expectation that people help those who are dependent or in need of assistance (helping old lady walk up stairs)

Bystander effect

shows how different situational factors can impact a person’s likelihood of helping others (less likely to help when others are around —> diffusion of responsibility)

Situational variables

Environmental factors that influence behavior in certain situations (connected to bystander effect; situational variable of other people being around causes you not to help)

Attentional variables

Factors that affect whether you notice a situation that may require help (when distracted on your phone, you may not realize if someone drops their books so you don’t help)