MODULE 6

James-Lange theory

The theory that emotion-inducing stimuli trigger physiological changes, which the brain then interprets as the feeling of emotion.

Cannon-Bard theory

The view that emotional experience and physiological reactions are parallel, independent processes with no direct causal link.

Decorticate

An organism that is lacking a cerebral cortex.

Sham rage

The exaggerated, poorly directed aggressive responses observed in decorticate animals.

Limbic system

A circuit of interconnected nuclei and tracts ringing the thalamus that regulates motivated behaviors and emotion.

Klüver-Bucy syndrome

Behavioral changes—such as fearlessness and hypersexuality—induced by bilateral damage to the anterior temporal lobes.

Amygdala

A temporal lobe structure critical for evaluating the emotional significance of situations, particularly fear.

Polygraphy

An interrogation method that uses autonomic nervous system indexes to infer a person's truthfulness.

Control-question technique

A polygraph method comparing physiological responses to target questions versus neutral control questions.

Guilty-knowledge technique

A detection method recording ANS responses to crime-related information known only to the guilty party.

Facial feedback hypothesis

The hypothesis that our facial expressions can influence the emotions we actually experience.

Duchenne smile

A genuine smile that involves the contraction of both the mouth and the eye (orbicularis oculi) muscles.

Fear

The emotional reaction elicited by the presence or expectation of threatening stimuli.

Defensive behaviors

Behaviors whose primary function is to protect the organism from threat or harm.

Aggressive behaviors

Behaviors whose primary function is to threaten or harm others.

Alpha male

The dominant male of a social colony.

Target-site concept

The idea that aggressive and defensive behaviors are designed to attack specific sites on an opponent while protecting one's own.

Fear conditioning

Establishing fear in response to a previously neutral stimulus by pairing it with an aversive stimulus.

Contextual fear conditioning

The process by which environments or situations come to elicit fear through association with fear-inducing stimuli.

Hippocampus

A medial temporal lobe structure critical for spatial location and learning about the context of fear-related events.

Lateral nucleus of the amygdala

The specific nucleus involved in the acquisition, storage, and expression of conditioned fear.

Prefrontal cortex

The areas of the frontal lobe anterior to the motor areas, responsible for complex cognitive functions.

Central nucleus of the amygdala

A nucleus thought to control defensive behavior via its outputs to the brain stem.

Urbach-Wiethe disease

A genetic disorder resulting in the calcification of the amygdala and loss of the ability to recognize facial expressions of fear.

Suppression paradigms

Experimental methods where subjects are asked to inhibit their emotional reactions to unpleasant stimuli.

Reappraisal paradigms

Experimental methods where subjects reinterpret a stimulus to change their emotional reaction to it.

Stress

Physiological changes that occur when the body is exposed to harm or threat.

Stressors

Experiences (physical or psychological) that induce a stress response.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

An anterior pituitary hormone that triggers the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.

Glucocorticoids

Steroid hormones released from the adrenal cortex in response to stressors.

Adrenal cortex

The outer layer of the adrenal gland that releases glucocorticoids.

Adrenal medulla

The core of the adrenal gland that releases epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Cytokines

Peptide hormones released by cells that participate in inflammatory and immunological responses.

Subordination stress

Chronic stress experienced by animals continually attacked by higher-ranking members of their species.

Bullying

A chronic social threat that serves as a human equivalent to subordination stress.

Psychosomatic disorders

Medical disorders in which psychological factors like stress play a causal role.

Gastric ulcers

Painful lesions in the stomach lining, often influenced by the interaction of stress and bacteria.

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of interactions among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system.

Immune system

The body's defense system against infectious microorganisms.

Innate immune system

The first immune component to react, typically triggering inflammation near points of entry.

Pathogens

Disease-causing agents.

Toll-like receptors

Receptors in the innate immune system that trigger phagocytosis and inflammatory responses.

Leukocytes

White blood cells.

Phagocytes

Specialized cells (like microglia) that destroy and ingest pathogens.

Phagocytosis

The process of destroying and ingesting foreign matter.

Adaptive immune system

The division that mounts targeted attacks on foreign pathogens by binding to specific antigens.

Lymphocytes

Specialized leukocytes (T and B cells) produced in bone marrow and the thymus.

Cell-mediated immunity

An immune reaction where T cells destroy invading microorganisms.

T cells

Lymphocytes that bind to foreign microorganisms and destroy them.

Antibody-mediated immunity

An immune reaction where B cells produce antibodies to destroy invaders.

B cells

Lymphocytes that manufacture antibodies against antigens.

Antigens

Molecules on the surface of cells that can trigger an immune response.

Antibodies

Proteins that bind to antigens to promote the destruction of invaders.

Vaccination

Administering a weakened form of a virus to prepare the adaptive immune system for future invasion.

Immunization

The process of creating immunity through vaccination.

Corticosterone

A major glucocorticoid used in research as an indicator of stress.

Adrenalectomy

Surgical removal of the adrenal glands.

Psychiatric disorders

Disorders of psychological function severe enough to require treatment.

DSM-5

The current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, used for standardizing diagnoses.

Schizophrenia

a mental disorder characterized by disruptions in thought processes, perceptions, emotional responsiveness, and social interactions.

Positive symptoms

Symptoms representing an excess of typical function (e.g., delusions, hallucinations).

Negative symptoms

Symptoms representing a reduction or loss of typical function (e.g., affective flattening, avolition).

Antipsychotic drug

A medication used to reduce the severity of psychosis.

Chlorpromazine

The first effective antipsychotic drug.

Psychosis

A clinical state involving a loss of touch with reality.

Reserpine

An early antipsychotic derived from the snakeroot plant that depletes dopamine.

Haloperidol

A potent antipsychotic that binds primarily to D2 dopamine receptors.

Phenothiazines

A class of antipsychotics (like chlorpromazine) that bind to both D1 and D2 receptors.

Butyrophenones

A class of antipsychotics (like haloperidol) that bind primarily to D2 receptors.

Typical antipsychotics

The first generation of antipsychotic medications.

Atypical antipsychotics

Second-generation drugs that treat schizophrenia without binding strongly to D2 receptors.

Clozapine

The first atypical antipsychotic; effective with only slight D2 affinity.

Psychedelic drugs

Drugs whose primary action is to alter perception, emotion, and cognition.

LSD

A potent classical hallucinogen

Anhedonia

A general inability to experience pleasure.

Clinical depression

Depression so severe that it impairs a patient's ability to meet daily life requirements.

Reactive depression

Depression triggered by an obvious negative experience.

Endogenous depression

Depression that occurs without an apparent external cause.

Comorbid

The occurrence of two or more health conditions in the same individual.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Depression that recurs during specific seasons, usually winter.

Peripartum depression

Sustained depression experienced during or after pregnancy.

Iproniazid

The first antidepressant drug; a monoamine oxidase inhibitor.

MAO inhibitors

Drugs that increase monoamine levels by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase.

Cheese effect

Dangerous blood pressure surges caused by MAO inhibitors reacting with tyramine-rich foods.

Tricyclic antidepressants

Antidepressants named for their three-ring molecular structure.

Imipramine

The first tricyclic antidepressant.

Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Serotonin agonists that block the reuptake of serotonin from synapses.

Fluoxetine

The first SSRI to be developed, marketed as Prozac.

Selective norepinephrine-reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)

Antidepressants that block the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine.

Atypical antidepressants

A catch-all class for antidepressants with unique mechanisms of action.

Ketamine

A dissociative hallucinogen that acts as a rapid antidepressant.

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

Noninvasive delivery of magnetic pulses to stimulate or inhibit specific cortical areas.

Up-regulation

An increase in the number of receptors in response to decreased neurotransmitter release.

Bipolar disorder

A category of disorders involving alternate bouts of depression and mania or hypomania.

Hypomania

A state of high energy, confidence, and talkativeness.

Mania

An extreme state involving overconfidence, grandeur, and usually psychosis.

Bipolar disorder type II

A disorder involving bouts of depression and hypomania.

Bipolar disorder type I

A disorder involving bouts of depression and full mania.

Mixed state

A condition in which a patient simultaneously displays symptoms of both depression and mania.

Mood stabilizers

Drugs that treat depression or mania without increasing the risk of the opposite state.