13. Minerals

What % of the human body is made of minerals?

Approximately 6% of total body weight. More than carbs

What is the difference between macrominerals and trace elements?

Macrominerals are required in >100 mg/day; trace elements are needed in very small amounts.

How are trace elements classified (WHO)?

Essential, probably essential, and potentially toxic.

Why are trace elements important in the body? how many are there

They act as cofactors for many enzymes involved in metabolism. 18.

Why do trace element deficiencies present with mixed symptoms?

Because each element affects multiple enzymes → no single specific clinical sign.

What factors affect mineral absorption and use?

Interactions with other minerals, diet composition, and physiological status.

What are the 9 essential trace elements?

Iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), iodine (I), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo).

How do trace elements interact with tooth enamel?

Enamel crystals have a large surface area, allowing ions (e.g., Ca²⁺, phosphate) to be adsorbed or held in a hydration shell where they are easily exchangeable; trace elements like Zn, Pb, Cu, and F⁻ can bind to the surface, with fluoride replacing OH⁻ to strengthen enamel.

What is the main function of iron in the body?

Oxygen transport/storage via hemoglobin and myoglobin.

What additional roles does iron play?

DNA synthesis, growth, immune function, and healing.

What condition results from iron deficiency?

Anemia → decreased oxygen delivery to tissues.

Key symptoms of iron deficiency?

Fatigue, pallor, tachycardia, spoon-shaped nails.

Difference between heme and nonheme iron?

Heme (animal) = better absorbed; nonheme (plant) = less absorbed.

What affects nonheme iron absorption?

Vitamin C enhances; coffee/tea/soy inhibit.

How does the body regulate iron absorption?

Iron-deficient individuals absorb more iron than those with adequate stores.

How does iron metabolism work in the body?

Dietary iron is absorbed in the duodenum (heme via transporters; nonheme Fe³⁺ → Fe²⁺ via reduction), stored as ferritin or transported in blood by transferrin; export is regulated by hepcidin, which inhibits ferroportin to decrease iron release into circulation.

Iron RDA and toxicity?

RDA: 8 mg (men), 18 mg (women); overdose → GI distress, shock, coma. Adolescents need more.

Main function of iodine?

Required for thyroid hormone synthesis.

What do thyroid hormones regulate?

Metabolism, growth, development, and reproduction.

Main dietary sources of iodine?

eafood, iodized salt, dairy.

What does iodine deficiency cause?

Goiter(enlargement of thyroid gland), hypothyroidism, developmental delays.

Iodine RDA and toxicity?

RDA: 150 mcg/day; toxicity → GI irritation, rare coma.

Major roles of zinc?

Growth, immune function, reproduction, DNA regulation. enzymes!!

What are zinc’s 3 cellular functions?

Catalytic, structural (of proteins and cell membranes), regulatory. (dna)

Zinc sources and absorption issue?

Meat (best), nuts/legumes; plant zinc less absorbable.

Zinc deficiency symptoms?

Poor growth, immune dysfunction, delayed healing, skin rashes.

Zinc RDA and toxicity?

RDA: 11 mg (men), 8 mg (women); excess → copper deficiency.

Main function of copper?

Redox reactions and antioxidant activity.

Copper’s role in the body?

Connective tissue formation, iron metabolism, nervous system. via being a componenet of enzymes like lysyl oxidase.

Copper sources?

Organ meats, shellfish, nuts, seeds.

Copper deficiency vs toxicity?

Deficiency: anemia, immune issues; toxicity: liver damage, Wilson disease from copper contamination.

How does copper function as an antioxidant?

Copper easily cycles between Cu⁺ and Cu²⁺, allowing it to donate electrons to neutralize free radicals, stopping oxidative damage to lipids and proteins.

What creates free radicals in the body?

increased by external factors like tobacco smoke, alcohol, pollution, stress, poor diet, and lack of sleep.

Copper RDA?

~900 mcg/day. you need more when pregnant

Functions of manganese?

Bone formation, metabolism, brain function, antioxidant.

Where is manganese stored?

Bones, liver, kidney, pancreas.

Manganese sources and deficiency?

Sources: whole!! grains, nuts; deficiency → infertility, bone issues.

Manganese intake and toxicity?

~2 mg/day; inhalation toxicity → neurologic symptoms.

Main function of fluoride? trace element

Strengthens enamel and prevents dental caries.

Where is fluoride found and stored?

Stored in bones/teeth; sources: water, tea, fish, toothpaste.

Fluoride deficiency vs excess?

Deficiency: dental caries, cavities; excess: dental fluorosis, speckling.

Where is fluoride absorbed in the body?

Fluoride is absorbed in the stomach and small intestine, then enters the bloodstream and is taken up by bones and teeth.

Function of chromium?

Enhances insulin action → glucose metabolism.

Chromium sources and deficiency?

Sources: whole grains, meats, bran cereals; deficiency → impaired glucose tolerance.

Chromium toxicity?

Hexavalent chromium (industrial) = carcinogenic.

Function of selenium?

Antioxidant via selenoproteins; supports immunity. prevent cell damage.

Selenium sources and deficiency diseases?

Sources: meats, plant foods, grains; deficiency → when youre fed through an IV. Keshan (heart), Kashin-Beck (bone).

Selenium toxicity?

Selenosis → hair loss, brittle nails, garlic breath.

UL selenium?

400 mcg/day

Function of molybdenum?

Cofactor for enzymes (sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase).

What are the 4 enzymes that require molybdenum as a cofactor?

Sulfite oxidase (converts sulfite → sulfate), xanthine oxidase (converts xanthine → uric acid), aldehyde oxidase (breaks down toxic aldehydes/drugs), and mARC (removes toxic metabolic byproducts).

Mo sources, deficiency, and toxicity?

Sources: legumes/grains; deficiency rare; excess → neurologic + gout-like symptoms.

Mo RDA

very little ~40mcg

Role of cobalt?

Component of vitamin B12 → RBC production + nervous system.

Cobalt sources, deficiency, toxicity?

Sources: animal foods; deficiency = B12 deficiency; toxicity → heart problems.

Cobalt RDA

1.5 mcg/day VERY LITTLE

What are the functions of boron in the body?

Supports bone health and hormone function, enhances magnesium absorption, and acts as an antioxidant/anti-inflammatory.

What are heavy metal toxins and their effects?

Heavy metals (e.g., lead, mercury, cadmium) are non-essential/toxic elements that accumulate in tissues, causing oxidative stress, enzyme dysfunction, and damage to the nervous system, kidneys, and other organs.

How are trace elements linked to oral lesions?

Exposure to metals (e.g., Cr, Co, Ni, dental alloys) can trigger hypersensitivity reactions → immune-mediated damage to oral epithelium (e.g., oral lichen planus/lichenoid reactions).