Social Psychology FINAL EXAM

Herbert Spencer

19th century, British sociologist

• extended Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection from the biological realm to the psychological

• argues that properties of the mind that produce social behavior are inherited through a process of evolution

Sigmund Freud

human behavior directed primarily by aggressive and seggsual drives. His theories laid the groundwork for psychoanalysis, emphasizing the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

• aggessive behavior critical for competing for scarce resources & avoiding predators

• sexual behavior critical for reproducing and perpetuating genes

John Watson - behaviorism

argued that psychology should focus only on overt behavior because it can be directly observed and measured

• most human behavior is learned in response to the demands of the environment

• behaviors followed by desirable outcomes reoccur, undesirable outcomes dont reoccur

social cognition perspective

understand how people perceive, remember, and interpret events and individuals in their social world, including themselves

5 influential perspectives in social psychology

• social cognitive

• evolutionary

• cultural

• social neuroscience

• existential

evolutionary perspective

focus on how humans are a species of animal and that their social behavior is a consequence of particular evolved adaptations

cultural perspective

focus on the influence of culture on thought, feeling, and behavior

social neuroscience

focus on the neural processes that underlie social judgment and behavior

existential perspective

focus on the cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences of basic aspects of the human condition such as the knowledge of mortality, the desire for meaning, and the precarious nature of identity

humans are cultural animals

only humans create their own symbolic conception of reality, this creation is culture.

• meaning to life, representation of reality

Assumption of Social Psychology #1

Kurt Lewin (1936)

• any given behavior is determined by the combined influences of individual features of the person and specific aspects of the situation

• a person’s environment profoundly influences how they think, feel, and act in social life

dispositions

consistent preferences, ways of thinking, and behavioral tendencies that influence us across varying situations and over time

Assumption of Social Psychology #2

Behavior depends on a socially constructed view of reality

• all thoughts, feelings, and actions are social in nature

Assumption of social psychology #3

behavior is strongly influenced by our social cognition

• we try to understand others by interpreting their thoughts, intentions, and feelings based on social context.

Assumption of Social Psychology #4

The best way to understand social behavior is to use the scientific method

• experiments, observation, etc.

section review ch1: 4 core assumptions

Heider’s Attribution theory (1958)

the view that people act as intuitive scientists when they observe other people’s behavior and infer explanations about why those people acted the way they did

• people are intuitive scientists

causal attributions

we observe other people’s behavior and try to figure out why they acted the way they did

cultural knowledge

what shapes attributions

• a vast store of information accumulated within a culture that explains how the world works and why things happen as they do

Explaining behavior through introspection

people’s explanations for their own behavior can sometimes be misleading

• people dont always tell the truth because of biases and self-serving motives

• people often dont really know what they think they know

  • dont know why they do what they do or feel the way they feel

  • people’s explanations for their feelings are often incorrect (1977)

• our observations come from our own unique and limited perspective

• our reasoning processes may be biased to confirm what we set out to assess

Richard Nisbet and Tim Wilson (1977)

peoples explanations for their feelings are often incorrect

• female shoppers at large department store showed 4 pairs of stockings from left to right on a table

  • asked to select fav and explain why

  • they were all identical except for differences in scent and randomized order

  • people usually prefer products they evaluate last

  • 71% chose stockings on right side of table

  • women said differences in color or texture, nothing abt placement on table

human capacity for introspection is quite limited

cognitive misers

people who avoid expending effort and cognitive resources when thinking and prefer to seize on quick and easy answers to the questions they ask. if we think an explanation makes sense, we tend to accept it without much thought or analysis

• if events are unexpected or important to use, we make better inferences about others’ behaviors and how the world works

confirmation bias

tendency to seek out information and view events and other people in ways that fit how we want and expect them to

Lord et al 1979 test

confirmation bias

• students in intro psych class tested on their feelings on capital punishment

• read two studies, one concluded capital punsihment reduced crime, the other concluded it didnt reduce crime

• after, students were asked to evaluate the quality of each study and their findings.

• everyone in study reported their current attitude about capital punishment and they all were still in favor of their preexisting beliefs

  • found these more convincing

Tanya Chartrand and John Bargh (1999) - subtle influence of others

• in this study, people were paired together to make judgements about pictures

• one pair was real participant, other a confederate

• sometimes confederate rubbed their face, shook a food repeatedly during a task

• the naive participants mimicked these nervous behaviors of the confederates

• participants didn’t realize these effects but clearly were influenced

confederate

someone working with the experimenters

ch 1 section review: cultural knowledge

theories

explanations on how or why things happen as they do

research

the process whereby scientists observe events in the world, look for consistent patterns, and evaluate theories proposed to explain those patterns.

scientific method

hypothesis

observation & testing

data collection

analysis of results

reporting

Reliability

consistency of measurement over time and across different situations.

• can it be replicated

Validity

knowing that test actually measures what its supposed to measure, does it effectively do its job

research methods

• surveys

• naturalistic observation

• case studies

DO NOT DETERMINE CAUSATION

surveys

allow us to generalize to a population

randomly sample people

naturalistic observation

just observe and take notes

• patterns of behavior

• interactions in a natural setting without manipulation of variables.

case studies

sample size is generally low, sometimes single individual

• and provide in-depth insight into a specific subject or phenomenon.

experimental research

• involves manipulating one or more variables to determine their effect on a dependent variable.

  • manipulation: isolate one variable as a cause (independent variable)

  • participants should be the same on average

  • IV and DV and all other variables held constant

• This method allows for the establishment of causation

random assignment

assign people randomly to either experimental group or control group.

• This process helps eliminate selection bias and ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

• effectively equalizes everything

• if they differ at end of experiment, must be bc of the manipulation of independent variable

double blind procedure

participant and experimenter are both blind as to who gets real IV and who gets placebo.

hypothesis

an if-then statement that follows logically from a theory and specifies how certain variables should be related to each other if the theory is correct

• bridge from theory to research

stereotype threat theory

states that individuals perform worse on tasks when they fear confirming negative stereotypes about their social identity

• 1955 Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson

• poor performance by members of stigmatized groups as it creates anxiety or distraction, impacting concentration and overall performance.

correlational method

two or more preexisting characteristics (variables) of a group of individuals are measured and compared to determine whether and/or to what extent they are associated.

• The correlational method examines the relationship between variables without manipulation, often used to identify patterns or associations.

stigma consciousness

tendency to be highly conscious of one’s stereotyped status and to believe they these stereotypes shape how one is viewed by others.

• Liz Pinel 2005

correlation coefficient

a positive or negative numerical value that shows direction and strength of a relationship between two variables typically ranging from -1 to +1.

positive/ negative tells us direction

closer to 1 or -1 tells us its strong, closer to 0 is weak

why correlation isnt causation

• reverse causality problem: we dont know which is the cause and which is the effect

• third variable problem: an external factor may influence both variables, leading to a spurious correlation.

longitudinal studies

two variables measured at multiple points in time

• can make us more conficent about likely causal order

  • eg: Huesmann, Lagerspetz, Eron 1984

    • violent television watched in childhood correlated positively with amt of aggressive behavior as adult

    • aggressiveness in childhood doesnt mean you watch violent television as adult

• third variable problem remains, not causaiton

internal validity

when all requirements of experimental method are met

• it is possible to conclude that the manipulated IV caused any observed changes in measured DV

steele and aronson (1995)

• stereotype threat caused reduced performance among members of stigmatized groups

  • tested on verbal ability (black and white students)

  • asked to indicate race on answer form prior to beginning test

  • control group took test with no mentioning of race

  • when participants were reminded of theri race, their performance dropped, not for white students

interaction

the pattern when the effect of one IV and the DV depends on the level of a second variable 4

random assignment

participants assigned to conditions in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being in either condition

• solves problem of preexisting differences among participants in two conditions

field research

outside the laboratory, conducting research in natural settings to observe behaviors as they occur in real life.

• capture social behavior as it occurs out in the world

quasi-experimental designs

groups of participants are compared on some dependent variable, but for practical or ethical reasons, they are not randomly assigned.

ch 1: scientific method section review

what makes for a good theory in social psych

• organizes observations

• explains observations

• provides direction for research

• generates new questions

• has practical value

contact hypothesis

Gordon Allport in Nature of Prejudice (1954)

• the idea that specific forms of contact between groups can break down stereotypes and negative feelings and thus reduce prejudice and intergroup conflict

operational definition

entails finding a specific, concrete way to measure or manipulate a conceptual variable

operationalizing a DV refers to specifying how it will be measured in a particular study

operationalizing a IV refers to precisely the procedures and stimuli that will be used to manipulate some variable of interest

construct validity

degree to which a dependent variable measures what it intends to measure or an IV manipulates what it intends to manipulate

• manipulation check, directly assesses whether manipulation created the change that was intended

confounded variable

when more than one conceptual variable differs across conditions in an experiment, the IV is confounded

• alternative explanations make it unclear which conceptual variable really is responsible for the changes in the dependent variable that occur

external validity

ability to generalize one’s findings beyond the group of ppl studied

W.E.I.R.D

Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic societies that are often the sample in psychological research.

direct replication

attempting to use the same methods and measures used by the original researchers

• sample is large

• manipulation is strong

• measures are reliable

moderator variables

theoretically explain when, where, or for whom effects are most likely to occur

meta analysis

process of analyzing data across many related studies to determine the strength and reliability of a finding

registered report

study that is accepted for publication on the strength of the methods and importance of the question but before results are known.

limitations of science

• aspects of reality that we humans cant know

  • our knowledge comes from our sense organs which doesn’t register the things actually happening in the world

• although scientific method may be objective, the human beings who apply it are not

• not all questions can be answered scientifically

• human values exert influence on the way science is conducted

ch 1 theory building section review

horrible treatments conducted

• Nazi doctors in concentration camps during WW2

  • injected pregnant women with toxic substances to refine abortion and sterilization techniques

• Tuskegee syphilis experiment, conducted btwn 1932-1972 by US Health Service

  • in order to study progression of syphilis, scientists didn’t tell African Americans that they and syphilis.. didnt give them any penicillin

Milgram’s 1974 experiments

• study on obedience and authority

• participants believed they were giving middle-aged man extremely painful and potentially lethal electric shocks that tested how far individuals would go in obeying an authority figure, despite moral objections.

cover story

an explanation of the purpose of the study that told to participants, but is different from the TRUE purpose

• most social psychological experiments involve some level of deception

demand characteristics

aspects of an experiment that can reveal its purpose, potentially influencing participants' behavior and responses.

• subtle cues in an experiment that lead participants to guess the research aims and alter their behavior to fit expectations, threatening internal validity

• change their behaviors introducing alternative explanations for results of study

experimenter bias

researchers have own desires and biases, can affect how they treat participants even if the researchers themselves are unaware of it.

• they should be “blind” to experiment, don’t know which condition a particular participant is in

APA Code of Ethics

psychological researchers in US must abide by these rules

• ethical review boards that judge whether potential benefits of reserch outweigh the research’s potential costs

• participants give informed consent to take part in any study

debriefing

conducted by experimenter, probes for suspicion about true purpose of the study, gently reveals deceptions, clarifies true purpose of the study and explains why deception necessary to achieve the goals of the research.

ch 1 section review: ethical considerations in research

What can make someone more prosocial?

Being in a good mood

• can enhance empathy, increase altruism, and encourage helpful behavior towards others.

• see the best in others

• avoid any guilt

• positive look on humanity

Intense awe

• inspire us to think beyond ourselves and see ourselves as smaller beings

Reminders of mortality

prosocial

behaviors that benefit others or society as a whole, such as helping, sharing, and cooperating.

• only prosocial behavior of theres intention behind it

altruism

The selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behaviors without expecting anything in return.

• the desire to help another purely for the other person;s benefit, regardless of whether we derive any benefit

Air Florida Crash

• wintry mix snow in DR

• heroism

• ppl saved those who fell in water

Prosocial Roles

positions that encourage behaviors aimed at benefiting others, such as volunteering, mentoring, or community service.

• certain norms tell us how to behave

• teaching, friend, nursing, customer service, etc are roles that lead to helpfulness

religion / culture

gives people set of rules that help regulate their behavior

• morality

• kindness

• compassion

not all religious people act prosocially but sometimes it does

bystander effect

A social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in an emergency when others are present, due to a diffusion of responsibility.

• John Darley and Bibb Latane were the researchers who first identified the bystander effect in the 1960s after the murder

• presence of others make an individual inactive

diffusion of responsibility

a social psychological phenomenon where individuals feel less accountable for taking action or helping in a group situation, assuming someone else will act, leading to inaction

• people assume others will act

Kitty Genovese Case 1964

Queens, NY: attacked and stabbed in the back. She was assaulted and stabbed in a brutal attack lasting over 30 minutes. She cried for help but, of 38 witnesses from windows and walking past, no one intervened.

• highlighting the bystander effect and raising awareness about social behavior in emergencies.

• no one called police

• John Darley and Bibb Latane

Darley and Latane Seizure experiment (1968)

study that separated people into groups of 3 or 6 to observe their willingness to help a person in distress (seizure over the phone)

• in smaller groups, it takes less time for more ppl to respond to seizure

• If youre the only one who knows about it, within 2 minutes 85% of ppl respond, within 6 minutes 100% of ppl respond

• If there are 6 people in your group who know about it, within 2 minutes only 31% of ppl respond, within 6 minutes 62% of ppl respond

  • Ppl assume others will respond, so its not their responsibility

Darley and Latane Smoke Experiment

• Some sit in room alone, others are in 3 person groups (some working with experiment- confederates programmed to never act like its an emergency) some also with real other participants not in on the experiment 

• If alone in room: 75% report within 2 minutes

• With 3 subjects, real participants: 38% report within 5 minutes

• With confederates who acted nonchalant: only 10% report

steps to helping

The Model of Bystander Intervention - certain things have to happen 

1. Notice the event 

2. Interpret as an emergency 

3. Assume responsibility 

4. Know how to assist

5. Implement help (and consider danger to the self, legal concerns, embarrassment, etc)  (cost-benefit analysis)

Population density - helping

in bigger cities, despite a denser population, people tend to be less willing to help strangers

altruistic personality

a collection of personality traits, such as empathy, that render some people more helpful than others

• behaviors, tendencies

people who are agreeable or humble:

motivated by prosocial concerns

• sensitive to needs of others and motivated to adapt their behavior to meet those needs

• usually help strangers

those who help for more internal reasons…

• higher levels of empathy

• report feeling stronger connection to others

• emotional benefits

• “i help because i think its important to”

external reasons for helping

“i help because others tell me to”

• influenced by social norms or expectations

role of political values on prosocial acts

• conservatives more likely to withhold public assistance to people whom they view as responsible for their own predicament

  • motivated to maintain traditional values and norms

  • if ppl violate norms, more inclined to punish than help

• liberals tend to support providing assistance to people regardless of how they got there

  • motivated by egalitarian values, don’t put price tag on anyone’s suffering or pain

• both conservatives and liberals help those who are least to blame for the situation

what gender is victorious when it comes to prosocial behavior

women

• more than 70% in professions like social work, elementary and middle school teaching, nursing, medical assistance, legal assistance, restaurant host or hostessing, and cleaning

what are women’s personality traits

high agreeableness and empathy,

• better at decoding peoples emotions

• communion (oriented towards others, caring, compassionate)

which gender is more likely to help

men actually helped more in certain instances

• women are more likely to volunteer and care for others

• men are more likely to help in emergency situations or physical tasks.

  • men also more willing to help when others KNOW that they have helped (external)

“tend-and-befriend” response

women exhibit this response to stressors

• In stressful situations, women experience a set of hormonal responses, including increased oxytocin, that encourage them to seek safety and comfort for themselves and their loved ones—especially their children—and to strengthen social connections.

urban overload hypothesis

the idea that urban living creates excessive stimulation or noise pollution

• you get used to a lot of noise, so people might shut out these sounds

• difficult to distinguish between real cries of help and a normal night in the city

Fitzsimons & Bargh, 2003- priming prosocial roles

study, people at airport asked to do survey recalling and answering few questions abt a close friend or coworker.

• after, asked to rate interest in helping experimenter by completing a second, longer survey

  • only 19% agreed when they were primed to think coworker, 53% agreed then thinking abt friend

jonas and colleagues (2002)

• making people think abt death increases donations to valued charities

ch 13 section review: priming social feelings and behavior

ch 13 section review: why do people fail to help