Bio 161 W4 Cellular Respiration & Metabolism

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Last updated 5:27 AM on 4/27/26
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80 Terms

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Cellular Respiration & Fermentation

  • Metabolic process by which cells convert potential energy found in macromolecules into function (USABLE) energy accessible to cellular machinery

<ul><li><p>Metabolic process by which cells convert potential energy found in macromolecules into function (USABLE) energy accessible to cellular machinery</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Harnessing PE from Macromolecules

  • Catabolic processes BREAK down marcomoleucles, release potential energy

  • Anabolic pathways synthesize molecules in which energy can be harnessed through anabolic processes

<ul><li><p>Catabolic processes BREAK down marcomoleucles, release potential energy</p></li><li><p>Anabolic pathways synthesize molecules in which energy can be harnessed through anabolic processes</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Harnessing PE from Macromolecules: 1st broken down?

Carbohydrates

<p>Carbohydrates</p>
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Harnessing PE from Macromolecules: 2nd broken down?

Fats and Phospholipids

<p>Fats and Phospholipids </p>
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Harnessing PE from Macromolecules: 3rd broken down?

Proteins

<p>Proteins</p>
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Harnessing PE from Macromolecules: 4th broken down?

Nucleic Acids

  • worst case scenario!!!

<p>Nucleic Acids</p><ul><li><p>worst case scenario!!!</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Cellular Energy Currency

Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP)

<p>Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP)</p>
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ATP: is a

high energy molecule

<p>high energy molecule </p>
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ATP hydrolyzes to

ADP or AMP

<p>ADP or AMP</p>
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Temporary Intermediates are

Required (storage of energy)

  • take macromolecule w/Potential energy w/transition states & intermediates & turn into chemical energy

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Important Cellular Energy Storage

  • Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP) —> most common nucleotide used

  • Guanosine Tri-Phosphate (GTP)

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ATP & GTP are based on

phosphorylation & dephospho-rylation

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NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 are based on..

Redox reactions!

  • losing or gaining e-

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Phosphorylation-dephosphorylation: ATP/ADP cycle

Energy from food used to phosproylate ATP, ATP dephosporylated to ADP to produce energy for cellular work

<p>Energy from food used to phosproylate ATP, ATP dephosporylated to ADP to produce energy for cellular work</p>
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Reducing Agent

what gets oxidized (loses electrons)

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Oxidizing agent

what gets reduced (gains electrons)

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Oxidation is

loss of e-

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Reduction is

gain of e-

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NAD+ gets reduced to

  • GAINS e-

  • reduced to NADH

<ul><li><p>GAINS e- </p></li><li><p>reduced to NADH</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Who carries out cellular respiration & fermentation?

  • all cells will carry out some form of respiration or fermentation

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Glucose is the prototype!

  • Model substrate

  • All of the macromolecules are able to go through cellular processes to derive energy from them, but glucose is most studies

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Aerobic Respiration

Glycolysis —> Pyruvate —> Acetyl CoA —> Citric Acid Cycle —> Electron Transport Chain —> OXYGEN IS FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR

<p>Glycolysis —&gt; Pyruvate —&gt; Acetyl CoA —&gt; Citric Acid Cycle —&gt; Electron Transport Chain —&gt; <strong>OXYGEN IS FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR </strong></p>
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Anaerobic Respiration

Glycolysis —> Pyruvate —> Acetyl CoA —> Citric Acid Cycle —> Electron Transport Chain —> NONOXYGEN MOLECULE IS FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR

<p>Glycolysis —&gt; Pyruvate —&gt; Acetyl CoA —&gt; Citric Acid Cycle —&gt; Electron Transport Chain —&gt; <strong>NONOXYGEN MOLECULE IS FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR </strong></p>
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Fermentation

Glycolysis —> Fermentation —> Either Lactic Acid or Alectaldehyde to Ethanol & CO2

<p>Glycolysis —&gt; Fermentation —&gt; Either Lactic Acid or Alectaldehyde to Ethanol &amp; CO2</p>
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Aerobic Respiration, Anaerobic Respiration, and Fermentation all initially go through

Glycolysis !

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Eukaryotes:

can undergo aerobic respiration & fermentation

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Prokaryotes

can undergo aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, & fermentation (some can do all 3)

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Anaerobic respiration does not automatically equal

does not automatically equal fermentation!

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Fermentation and Anaerobic respiration are

  • both in the absence of oxygen but have DIFFERENT pathways

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Glucose is a good

a good electron donor

  • inherent potential energy

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Oxygen is the best

the best electron acceptor

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Glycolysis

  • process by which we break glucose apart & release energy

  • Beings glucose oxidation (loses e-)

  • 10 enzymatic steps

  • Regulated

<ul><li><p>process by which we break glucose apart &amp; release energy</p></li><li><p>Beings glucose oxidation (loses e-)</p></li><li><p>10 enzymatic steps</p></li><li><p>Regulated</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Where does glycolysis occur?

Cytoplasm of ALL cells

<p>Cytoplasm of ALL cells </p>
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Glycolysis Process

  • Glucose 6 carbon molecule (high energy) broken down into 2 Pyruvate (3 carbon molecules)

  • ADP —> ATP

  • NAD+ —> NADH (reduced, more potential energy)

<ul><li><p>Glucose 6 carbon molecule (high energy) broken down into 2 Pyruvate (3 carbon molecules)</p></li><li><p>ADP —&gt; ATP</p></li><li><p>NAD+ —&gt; NADH (reduced, more potential energy)</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Glycolysis Brief

  • 2 ATP used to break apart glucose

  • 4 ATP produced = NET GAIN +2 ATP

  • 2x NADH

  • 2 Pyruvate

<ul><li><p>2 ATP used to break apart glucose</p></li><li><p>4 ATP produced = <strong>NET GAIN +2 ATP</strong></p></li><li><p><strong>2x NADH </strong></p></li><li><p><strong>2 Pyruvate </strong></p></li></ul><p></p>
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Kinase

enzyme that phosphorylates

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Glycolysis Regulation

  • Enzyme: phosphofructokinase (PFK)

  • ATP high → inhibits PFK

  • ATP low → activates PFK

<ul><li><p>Enzyme: <strong>phosphofructokinase (PFK)</strong></p></li><li><p>ATP high → inhibits PFK</p></li><li><p>ATP low → activates PFK</p></li></ul><p></p>
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What kind of regulation is used for glycolysis?

  • Allosteric regulation!

  • ATP binds to regulatory site (NOT ACTIVE SITE)

  • When ATP levels are low, no binding & Active site is functional

<ul><li><p>Allosteric regulation! </p></li><li><p>ATP binds to regulatory site (NOT ACTIVE SITE)</p></li><li><p>When ATP levels are low, no binding &amp; Active site is functional </p></li></ul><p></p>
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Enzyme: phosphofructokinase (PFK)

carries out transfer of phosphate

<p>carries out transfer of phosphate </p>
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Limiting Reagent of Glycolysis

  • NAD+ !!!!

  • need NAD+ to capture e-

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NAD+ is replenished by oxidation or synthesis?

oxidation —> easier (synthesis takes time)

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Fates of Pyruvate: 1) (W/enough energy)

(w/enough energy) we use pyruvate to synthesize other things: amino acids, sugars, fat metabolites (Anabolic pathways)

<p> (w/enough energy) we use pyruvate to synthesize other things: amino acids, sugars, fat metabolites (Anabolic pathways)</p>
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Fates of Pyruvates : 2 (w/oxygen)

2 pyruvates turned into Acetyl CoA which then goes into citric acid cycle (respiration)

<p>2 pyruvates turned into Acetyl CoA which then goes into citric acid cycle (respiration)</p>
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Fates of Pyruvates : 2 (w/o oxygen)

can be turned into acids, gas or acetaldehyde which then turns into —> alcohol, acetone, 2. 3-butanediol (fermentation)

<p>can be turned into acids, gas or acetaldehyde which then turns into —&gt; alcohol, acetone, 2. 3-butanediol (fermentation)</p>
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What is central metabolism?

  • where we get the MOST ATP

  • carrying out respiration

  • Pyruvate processing, citric acid cycle, electron transport, chemiosmosis

<ul><li><p>where we get the MOST ATP</p></li><li><p>carrying out respiration</p></li><li><p>Pyruvate processing, citric acid cycle, electron transport, chemiosmosis </p></li></ul><p></p>
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Pyruvate Processing…..

… to Acetyl CoA

<p>… to Acetyl CoA</p>
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The Citric Acid Cycle….

to make e- carriers

<p>to make e- carriers</p>
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Electron transport chain to….

to build a proton gradient

<p>to build a proton gradient</p>
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Chemiosmosis to…

to make ATP

<p>to make ATP</p>
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Where does central metabolism occur in eukaryotes?

in mitochondria

<p>in mitochondria </p>
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Where does central metabolism occur in prokaryotes?

in the cytoplasm

<p>in the cytoplasm </p>
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Mitochondria

  • has outer & inner membrane

  • Semi independent organelle

  • behaves/looks/has components of bacteria..

  • HAS ITS OWN CIRCULAR DNA

  • reproduce by binary fission

  • cristae to increase surface area of membrane

<ul><li><p>has outer &amp; inner membrane</p></li><li><p>Semi independent organelle</p></li><li><p>behaves/looks/has components of bacteria..</p></li><li><p>HAS ITS OWN CIRCULAR DNA</p></li><li><p>reproduce by binary fission</p></li><li><p>cristae to increase surface area of membrane </p></li></ul><p></p>
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Mitochondria function

energy production & synthesis

<p>energy production &amp; synthesis</p>
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AFTER glycolysis, to “squeeze out” more energy of pyruvate (Respiration ONLY)

pyruvate processing must occur

—> turned to Acetyl CoA

  • shuttled into matrix of mitochondria (cytoplasm of mitchondria)

<p>pyruvate processing must occur</p><p>—&gt; turned to Acetyl CoA</p><ul><li><p>shuttled into matrix of mitochondria (cytoplasm of mitchondria) </p></li></ul><p></p>
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For Pyruvate to continue respiration it must be

  • shuttled into matrix of mitochondria (cytoplasm of mitchondria)

—> must first be modified!

  • 1 carbon bond broken & CO2 released

  • NADH produced from NAD+

  • Addition of coenzyme results in: Acetyl CoA!

<ul><li><p>shuttled into matrix of mitochondria (cytoplasm of mitchondria) </p></li></ul><p>—&gt; must first be modified!</p><ul><li><p>1 carbon bond broken &amp; CO2 released</p></li><li><p>NADH produced from NAD+</p></li><li><p>Addition of coenzyme results in: Acetyl CoA!</p></li></ul><p></p>
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After pyruvate processing…

  • The citric acid cycle!!

—> additional breakdown of Acetyl CoA

<ul><li><p>The citric acid cycle!!</p></li></ul><p>—&gt; additional breakdown of Acetyl CoA</p>
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Citric Acid Cycle has

citrate as first stpe, 3 carboxylic acids

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The citric acid cycle occurs in..(p)

occurs in the cytosol of prokaryotes

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The citric acic cycle occurs in (e)

occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria

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The citric acid cycle is also regulated

  • Regulated via feedback inhibition by NADH, ATP

  • High ATP, High NADH = off

  • Low ATP, Low NADH - on

<ul><li><p>Regulated via feedback inhibition by NADH, ATP</p></li><li><p>High ATP, High NADH = off</p></li><li><p>Low ATP, Low NADH - on </p></li></ul><p></p>
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The Citric Acid Cycle Brief

acetyl CoA loses 2 carbons & produced 2 CO2

  • Major Goal: TRANSFER electrons (breaking carbon bonds) deriving potential energy

—> loading electrons carriers: NADH, FADH2

—> 2 ATP net

<p>acetyl CoA loses 2 carbons &amp; produced 2 CO2</p><ul><li><p>Major Goal: TRANSFER electrons (breaking carbon bonds) deriving potential energy</p></li></ul><p>—&gt; loading electrons carriers: NADH, FADH2</p><p>—&gt; 2 ATP net</p><p></p>
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ATP from citric acid cycle & glycolysis is

SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION

<p>SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION </p>
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What is substrate level phosphorylation?

enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphorylated substance to ADP, FORMING ATP

<p>enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from a phosphorylated substance to ADP, FORMING ATP</p>
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What to do with PE stored in 10NADH & 2 FADH2 from glycolysis, pyruvate processing, and citric acid cycle?

  • Inner mitochondria cirstate studded with protein complexes

  • Cytoplasm in inter-membrane space

  • Electron Transport Chain!!

<ul><li><p>Inner mitochondria cirstate studded with protein complexes</p></li><li><p>Cytoplasm in inter-membrane space </p></li><li><p>Electron Transport Chain!!</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Where is the electron transport chain located in eukaryotes?

Inner mitochondrial membrane

<p>Inner mitochondrial membrane</p>
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Where is the electron transport chain located in prokaryotes?

along the plasma membrane

<p>along the plasma membrane </p>
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Electron Transport Chain Brief

Function

  • Uses NADH & FADH₂ electrons (oxidizes them)

  • Energy used to Creates H⁺ gradient/Pump protons against membrane AGAINST gradient (ACTIVE TRANSPORT)

  • Drives ATP production

<p><strong>Function</strong></p><ul><li><p>Uses NADH &amp; FADH₂ electrons (oxidizes them)</p></li><li><p>Energy used to Creates H⁺ gradient/Pump protons against membrane AGAINST gradient (ACTIVE TRANSPORT)</p></li><li><p>Drives ATP production</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Chemiosmosis

H⁺ Gradient

  • High H⁺ outside membrane

  • Low H⁺ inside

👉 Stores potential energy

<p>H⁺ Gradient </p><ul><li><p>High H⁺ outside membrane</p></li><li><p>Low H⁺ inside</p></li></ul><p> </p><p><span data-name="point_right" data-type="emoji">👉</span> Stores <strong>potential energy</strong></p>
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Take home of Electron Transport Chain

taking electrons (energy) from NADH & FADH2 & transferring electrons from complex to complex, activating proton pumping, creating a GRADIENT

<p>taking electrons (energy) from NADH &amp; FADH2 &amp; transferring electrons from complex to complex, activating proton pumping, creating a GRADIENT </p>
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After Electron Transport Chain, Electrons are Transported to (AEROBIC RESPIRATION)

Oxygen! (Final electron acceptor)—> prduce H2O

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After Electron Transport Chain, Electrons are Transported to (ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION, PROKARYOTES)

other NON-oxygen final electron acceptor (small molecule)

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ATP Synthase

  • protein complex

  • allows protons to flow through channel & as hey flow, micromachine spins & makes ATP!!

  • Acts like a turbine

  • H⁺ flow → spins enzyme → makes ATP

<ul><li><p>protein complex</p></li><li><p>allows protons to flow through channel &amp; as hey flow, micromachine spins &amp; makes ATP!!</p></li><li><p>Acts like a turbine</p></li><li><p>H⁺ flow → spins enzyme → makes ATP</p></li></ul><p></p>
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Net: 1 molecule of glucose through Aerobic Respiration

  • net greater than 25

  • 4 from glycolysis & citric acid cycle

  • more than 25 from ETC & ATP synthase

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How many ATP from substrate level phosphorylation?

4 ATP

<p>4 ATP </p>
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How many ATP from oxidative phosphorylation?

pretty much all ATP from ATP synthase due to redox reactions!!!

<p>pretty much all ATP from ATP synthase due to redox reactions!!!</p>
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IF NO OXYGEN IS PRESENT

Anaerobic respiration will occur!! (In some prokaryotes only)

  • O2 is replaced w/another electron acceptor (nitrate, sulfate, etc)

<p>Anaerobic respiration will occur!! (In some prokaryotes only) </p><ul><li><p>O2 is replaced w/another electron acceptor (nitrate, sulfate, etc)</p></li></ul><p></p>
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No oxygen, how to regenerate NAD+ to continue glycolysis?

Fermentation!!!

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Fermentation

Pyruvate is used as the electron acceptor to be able to oxidize NADH back to NAD+ & keep glycolysis going!!!

<p>Pyruvate is used as the electron acceptor to be able to oxidize NADH back to NAD+ &amp; keep glycolysis going!!!</p>
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Human fermentation?

Lactic fermentation

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Fermentation 4 important observations

1) NADH is oxidized to NAD+

2) Electron acceptor is pyruvate ot pyruvate derivative

3) O2 generally not present

4) ETC cannot operate = decreased ATP yield