motor learning final exam

Learning

not directly observable, must be inferred from observable behavior. A change in the capability to perform a skill that must be inferred from a relatively permanent improvement in performance as a result of practice or experience

Performance

execution of a skill at a specific time and in a specific location.

Five characteristics of skill learning

improvement, consistency, stability, persistence, adaptability

Negatively accelerating curve

early improvement that slows during latter practice

Positively accelerating curve

slight improvement early but substantial improvement during later practice

Linear Curve

proportional increases over trials or time

Ogive or S shaped curve

combo of A, B, and C curves

Kids learning how to play basketball is an example of what curve?

Negatively accelerating curve

Relearning post surgery is an example of what curve?

Positively accelerated

Injury, healing, injured again would have what kind of curve?

Ogive or S shaped

Retention test

tests of a practiced skill that a learner performs following an interval of time after practice has ceased. Length of no practice interval is arbitrary. Purpose is to assess permanence of the performance level achieved during practice

Which test serves to assess the permanence of the performance levels achieved during practice?

Retention test

Transfer Test

assesses the adaptability of what was learned during practice. Can involve performing the practiced skill in a performance context or situation different from practice (availability of feedback, physical environment, personal characteristics) or performing a skill that is different from the one they practiced

Which test measured adaptability of a skill?

Transfer test

Two reasons to include an adaptability requirement in practice: practice may involve a performance variable that artificially _____ performance and practice may involve performance _____

inflates or depresses, plateaus

Adaptability

ability to adjust to new conditions

Consistency

stability across attempts

Persistence

retaining skills over time

Performance plateau

skill improvements stops despite continuing practice typcially due to doing too much of the same thing, cognitive fatigue, reaching limit of current technique

Stages of Fitt's and Posner

cognitive stage, associative stage, autonomous stage

Cognitive stage

beginner focuses on solving cognitively oriented problems (high errors)

Associative stage

person has learned to associate cues from the environment with requires movements, works to refine performance to be more consistent (fewer errors)

Autonomous stage

final stage where performance of the skill is automatic (very few errors/ none)

Which learning stage of focused on refinement of the skill?

Associative stage

Which learning stage has a high number of errors?

Cognitive

Gentile's two stage model

initial stage and later stages

Initial stage of gentile's two stage model

learner works to achieve two goals. 1. Movement coordination pattern to enable some degree of success achieving action goal. 2. Learn to discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions in environmental context

The two goals of gentile's initial stage of the two stage model of learning?

Movement coordination and discriminating between regulatory/ nonregulatory conditions

Later stages of gentile's model

involves learner acquiring three characteristics: adapting movement pattern acquired in initial stage to demands of any performance situation, increase consistency of action goal achievement, perform with an economy of effort

Three characteristics if gentile's later stages

adaptability, consistency, lower effort

In gentile's two stage model, closed skills require ____ of movement pattern

fixation (repetition)

Fixation of movement pattern

refine initial stage movement pattern to consistently repeat optimal movement pattern to achieve action goal

In gentile's two stage model, open skills require ____ of movement pattern

diversification (adaptation)

Diversification of movement pattern

refine initial stage movement pattern to enable adaptation to changing environmental conditions

Regulatory conditions

EFFECT THE SKILL BEING PERFORMED. Size of ball, speed of ball

Non-regulatory conditions

DO NOT effect the skill being performed. Color of ball

Changes that occur with practice

rate of improvement, movement coordination, altering an old or preferred coordination pattern, muscles used to perform the skill, energy cost, achieving the kinematic goals, visual selective attention, conscious attention with performing a skill, error detection and correction capability, brain activity

Rate of improvement

negative acceleration is most typical in a beginner. Power law of practice

Changes in movement pattern

occur with learning and practice. Freezing the degrees of freedom, you can solve the degrees of freedom problems through practice

Changes in altering an old or preferred coordination pattern

with learning and practice, enhances a new skill set with an old skill

Changes in muscle use

with learning and practice, number of these decrease as practice increases and we become more efficient

Change in energy cost

with learning and practice, we use less of this as we become more trained. This goes down as practice goes up

Change in kinematic goals of a skill

as learning and practice increase, we set goals in this order: displacement, velocity, acceleration

Changes in visual selective attention

with learning and practice, beginners look at too many things but as we practice we refine this

Changes in conscious attention

with learning and practice, skill becomes automatic with practice

Changes in error detection and correction capability

with learning and practice, as we become more skilled we can do this without the help of a practitioner pointing out the mistakes

Changes in brain activity

with learning and practice, less is needed as skills become automatic and memory increases

Practice specificity hypothesis

learning is specific to the sources of sensory information available during practice. When we use visual feedback during practice in the first stage of learning, we continue to need this feedback, even after we become more skillful with additional practice

Expert

someone who is located at the extreme right end of the learning stages continuum.

All experts have some common characteristics, such as ____, ____, and ____

amount and type of practice, knowledge structure, use of visions

Transfer principle

influence of previous experience on learning a new skill and performing a skill in a new context can result in positive transfer, negative transfer, neutral transfer

Transfer principle has practical and theoretical significance for: ____ skills to be learned, developing ____, and assessing the ____ of practice conditions

sequencing, instructional methods, effectiveness

Positive transfer

old skill has a positive impact on new skill. This occurs due to the similarity of skill and context components, similarity of processing requirements

Negative transfer

considered rare and temporary in motor skill learning. Occurs when new skill or context involves similar environmental context features but requires a different movement response. Negative effects can be overcome with practice. Important for the practitioner to be aware that it could cause discouragement early in practice

Two main reasons that negative transfer occur

motor control system required to perform in non-preferred manner for the environmental context, cognitive confusion

Bilateral transfer

transfer of learning that involves the positive influence of previous experience performing a skill with one limb on learning or performing the same skill with a different limb. EMG can detect muscle twitches in the limb not being used, which leads to bi lateral transfer

Asymmetric transfer

bilateral transfer in which there is a greater amount of transfer from one limb than from the other

Symmetric transfer

bilateral transfer in which the amount of transfer is similar from one limb to the other, regardless of which was used first

Research shows greater support for which type of bilateral transfer?

Asymmetric

Cognitive explanation of bilateral transfer

info is stored and shared with the other limb, MEMORY

GMP explanation of bilateral transfer

all skills are linked

Demonstration

modeling, an instructional strategy that encourages observational learning

Observational learning

learning of a skill that results from the direct observation of a person (or people) performing, or learning to perform, the skill

Research shows that demonstration leads to better skill learning that other instruction forms when the skill being learned requires the acquisition of a ____

new pattern of coordination

Demonstrator should perform the skill correctly because observer perceives the ____ movement patterns of a demonstrated skill

invariant

T/F. practice should precede demonstration.

False

Cognitive meditation theory

based on banduras theory of modeling and social learning. When a person observes a model, they translate the observed movement info into a symbolic memory code that forms the basis of a stored representation in memory and uses when the observer performs the skill

Verbal instructions

rank with demonstration as a commonly used means of communicating how to perform motor skills

Verbal cues

should be short, concise phrases that can direct attention to the purpose

T/F. modeling and observational learning are synonymous terms.

True

What is the most effective demonstration? Verbal or visual?

Verbal

During demonstration, which systems work together for automatic processing?

Visual and motor

What theory says that we are able to translate information that we are hearing and seeing into easily remembered codes?

Cognitive mediation theory

Invariant features

common/ unique characteristics to that particular skill

Keys for successful demonstration

don't give too much info too soon, focus only on major points in the beginning, only give instructions to complete the task, use concise short phrases

Tas intrinsic feedback

sensory perceptual info that is a natural part of performing a skill

Augmented feedback

performance related info added to or enhancing task-intrinsic feedback

Knowledge of results (KR)

externally presented info about the outcome of performing a skill or about achieving the goal of the performance

Knowledge of performance (KP)

externally presented info abt movt characteristics that led to the performance outcome

Descriptive KP

describing what is going on (error) and learner knows how to correct themselves

Prescriptive KP

providing learner with corrective feedback

Two roles of augmented feedback in skill acquisition

facilitates achievement of the action goal of the skill, motivates the learner to continue striving toward a goal

How essential is augmented feedback for skill learning?

It can be essential for skill learning, it may not be necessary for skill learning, it can enhance skill learning, it can hinder or slow skill learning

Concurrent augmented feedback

provided while a person is performing a skill. Can have a negative learning effect or enhance skill learning

Terminal augmented feedback

provided after a person has completed the performance of a skill. These are the times needed for processing of the feedback

KR delay interval

processing time between the completion of the skill and the feedback

Post KR interval

processing time between the feedback and new start

Traditional view on the frequency of augmented feedback

should be provided for every trial (100%) frequency is best for learning

Current view on frequency of augmented feedback

less than 100% frequency is best for learning. Based on research that has investigated techniques that reduce AF frequency

Techniques that reduced augmented feedback frequency

performance based bandwidths, performer selected frequency, summary and averaged augmented feedback

Performance based bandwidths

perfect of correctness within which you will work with

Performer selected frequency

performer asking what they did wrong

Summary and average augmented feedback

taking notes and giving feedback to allow them to go through activity on their own and get feedback at the end

Practice variability

refers to the variety of movement and context characteristics the learner experiences while practicing a skill

Movement and context characteristics that can be varied in practice: ____ that will be required in test conditions, ____ in which the skill is performed, and ____ in which the skill occurs

skill variations, physical context, situation

More error in practice = more or less error in testing situation?

Less

Closed skills

if they require intertrial variability, change the practice scenarios (ex. Changing the hole placements in golf putt practice)

Different ways to organize practice variability

blocked, serial, random

Motor skill processes are always tested under what form of variability?

Random

Contextual interference effect

the memory and performance disruption that results from performing variation of a skill within the context of practice. Originally described by Battig in 1979. Occurs when higher amounts of contextual interference are involved in practice than lower amounts