apes vocab

1) Conservation

allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner

2) Preservation

setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities

3) Keystone species

species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others ( sea otters, sea stars, grizzly bears, prairie dogs)

4) Indicator species

species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged ex. trout

5) Characteristics of endangered species

small range, large territory, or live on an island

6) Endangered species

a group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is not improved; population numbers have dropped below the critical number of organisms; North spotted Owl (loss of old growth forest), Bald Eagle (thinning of eggs caused by DDT), Piping Plover (nesting areas threatened by development), and many others

7) Invasive/Alien/Exotic species

non-native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance; examples kudzu vine, purple loosestrife, African honeybee “killer bee”, water hyacinth, fire ant, zebra mussel, gypsy moth, Asian Long Horned Beetle

8) Parts of the hydrologic cycle

evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration

9) Nitrogen fixing

because atmospheric N2 cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium or cyanobacteria)

10) Ammonification

nitrogen is converted into ammonia by ammonifying bacteria; may occur when nitrogen in organic wastes in the soil are converted to ammonia or when atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to NH3

11) Nitrification

ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3)

12) Assimilation

inorganic N2 is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins - plants assimilate nitrogen as NH4 or NO3 through their roots; animals (herbivores) assimilate organic nitrogen compounds by eating plants

13) Denitrification

bacteria convert nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO2) back into N2 gas; bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) back into N2 or N2O – typically accomplished by anaerobic bacteria

14) Phosphorus does not circulate as easily as nitrogen because

it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate (PO4) 3- rocks; this is a SEDIMENTARY cycle – it is never found as a gas

15) How excess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems

runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage; limiting factor in freshwater ecosystems; excess P leads to eutrophication

16) Photosynthesis

plants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6); energy is consumed and oxygen is released as a waste product

17) Aerobic respiration

O2-consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2; energy is released and oxygen is consumed in the process convert C back into CO2; energy is released and oxygen is consumed in the process

18) Anaerobic Respiration

break down of carbohydrates without oxygen – products are methane (CH4), alcohols and other organics

19) Transpiration

process where water is absorbed by plant roots, moves up through plants, passes through pores (stomata) in leaves or other parts, evaporates into atm. as water vapor

20) Largest reservoirs of C

carbonate (CO3) 2- rocks first, oceans second

21) Sustainability

the ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs

22) The Tragedy of the Commons

(1968 paper by ecologist Garret Hardin) “Freedom to breed” is bringing ruin to all. Global commons such as atmosphere & oceans are used by all and owned by none. When no individual has ownership, no one takes responsibility. Examples - overfishing in the oceans, over pumping of the Ogallala Aquifer

23) Natural selection

organisms that possess favorable adaptations survive and pass them onto the next generation

24) Energy flow in food webs or chains, through trophic systems

only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy lost as heat (second law); not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey; the 10% value is an average value

25) Biotic and abiotic

living and nonliving components of an ecosystem

26) Competition

– a type of population interaction, usually over a limited resource – may be intraspecific or interspecific

27) Producer/Autotroph

photosynthetic or chemosynthetic life; Chemotroph – organism undergoing chemosynthesis – usually carried out by sulfur bacteria in aphotic zones in the ocean (deep ocean vents, etc.)

28) Primary succession

development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life or those in which the soil profile is totally destroyed (lava flows); no soil substrate present; begins with lichen action

29) Secondary succession

life progresses where soil remains (clear-cut forest, fire, disturbed areas)

30) Mutualism

symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit and both participate

31) Commensalism

symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffected or may benefit

32) Parasitism

relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host

33) Biome

large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals; terrestrial biomes determining factors are temperature and precipitation

34) Carrying capacity

the number of individuals (size of the population) that can be sustained in an area (supported by available resources in the environment)

35) R strategist

reproduce early in life; many small unprotected offspring; tend to be generalists, short lifespan

36) K strategist

reproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring; tend to be specialists, longer lifespan

37) Positive feedback

when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer Earth)

38) Negative feedback

when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (warmer Earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground - therefore cooler Earth)

39) Malthus

said human population increases exponentially, while food supplies increase arithmetically; factors that keep the population in check include war, famine & disease

40) Doubling time

rule of 70; 70 divided by the percent growth rate

41) Replacement level fertility

the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing); biotic potential; total fertility rate (TFR)

42) World Population

~ 6.8 billion U.S. Population

43) Preindustrial stage

(demographic transition) birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high

44) Transitional stage

(demographic transition) death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast

45) Industrial stage

(demographic transition) decline in birth rate, population growth slows

46) Postindustrial stage

(demographic transition) low birth & death rates

47) Age structure diagrams

broad base = rapid growth; narrow base = negative growth; uniform shape = zero growth; Major Age Cohorts
pre-reproductives, reproductives, post-reproductives

48) First and second most populated countries

China and India

49) Most important thing affecting population growth

low status of women

50) Ways to decrease birth rate

family planning, contraception, economic rewards and penalties

51) True cost / External costs

harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product’s price

52) Cogeneration

using waste heat to make electricity

53) Electricity generated by fossil fuels, biomass or nuclear power

heat is produced which creates steam
steam turns a turbine
the mechanical energy from the turbine is converted to electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to homes through power lines

54) Hydroelectric power

potential energy of stored water is used to turn a turbine
the mechanical energy from the turbine is converted to electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to homes through power lines

55) Thermal gradient

spontaneous flow of heat from warmer to cooler bodies

56) Ionizing radiation

enough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, Xrays, UV)

57) High Quality Energy

organized & concentrated; can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)

58) Low Quality Energy

disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)

59) First Law of Thermodynamics

energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another (Law of Conservation of Energy)

60) Second Law of Thermodynamics

when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat

61) Best solutions to energy shortage

conservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options

62) Alternate energy sources

wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells

63) Natural radioactive decay

unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles

64) Half-life

the time it takes for ½ the mass of a radioisotope to decay

65) Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level

approximately 10 half-lives

66) Nuclear Fission

nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons

67) Nuclear Fusion

two isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break-even point not reached yet; D + D
He or D + T
He

68) Mass deficit

not all matter is converted into matter in a fusion reaction – some (the mass deficit) is converted into energy. E = mc2. Explains the energy released in a fusion reaction.

69) Major parts of a nuclear reactor

core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building

70) Two most serious nuclear accidents

Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) and Three Mile Island, PA (1979)

71) Petroleum formation

microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons (animal remains)

72) Pros of petroleum

relatively cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy

73) Cons of petroleum

reserves will be depleted soon; pollution during drilling, transport and refining; burning makes CO2

74) Steps in coal formation

peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite

75) Major insecticide groups (and examples)

chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT); organophosphates (malathion); carbamates (aldicarb)

76) Pesticide pros

saves lives from insect-transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers

77) Pesticide cons

genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification

78) Natural pest control

better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides

79) In natural ecosystems, methods which control 50-90% of pests

predators, diseases, parasites

85) Radon (Rn)

naturally occurring colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, found in some types of soil and rock, can seep into homes and buildings, formed from the decay of uranium (U), causes cancer and is a problem in the Reading Prong area of PA. Radon decays to Polonium (Po), which is a solid. Po particles sit in lung tissue and are alpha (α) emitters. This leads to lung cancer.

86) Photochemical smog

formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O*); associated with automobile traffic

87) Acid deposition

caused by sulfuric and nitric acids (H2SO4, HNO3), resulting in lowered pH of surface waters, soil acidification and destruction of building materials

88) Greenhouse gases

Examples infrared (IR, heat) energy, causing Earth to warm

89) Effects of global warming

rising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought, famine, extinctions

90) Stratospheric ozone depletion

caused by ozone-depleting chemicals (ODCs) such as CFCs, methyl chloroform or trichloromethane (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halon (haloalkanes), methyl bromide (CH3Br)— all of which attack stratospheric ozone. The Cl or Br atoms “attack” the ozone molecules and cause the thinning of this layer. Global Agreement to decrease ODC – Montreal Protocol (1987)

91) Effects of ozone depletion

increased UV light that results in skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth (inhibits photosynthesis, decline in Antarctic and Arctic phytoplankton population), impaired immune systems

92) Primary air pollutants

produced by humans & nature (CO,CO2,SOx,NOx, hydrocarbons, particulates)

93) Secondary Air Pollutants

produced as a result of reactions that primary air pollutants undergo (include photochemical pollutants O3, PAN and NO2, and acids such as H2SO4 and HNO3)

94) Sources of mercury

burning coal (25% of atmospheric deposition), compact fluorescent bulbs

95) Major source of sulfur

coal –burning power plants

96) Point vs. non point sources

Point, from specific location such as a pipe. Non-point, from over an area such as runoff

97) Chlorine

good= disinfection of water; bad = forms trihalomethanes when organics are present in the water; many systems now use chloramines to treat waste water before it is discharged. Alternatives to chlorine disinfection – ozone or UV light

98) Fecal coliform/Enterococcus bacteria

indicator of sewage contamination ; found in the intestines of all warm blooded mammals (coliform bacteria)

99) BOD

biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials in water

100) Eutrophication

may result in rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrates (NO3) and phosphates (PO4) in water

101) Hypoxia

when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO (dissolved O2) drops & the water cannot support life; very low DO levels; dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico

102) Anoxic

no DO (dissolved O2) in the water

103) Surface mining

cheaper and can remove more minerals; less hazardous to workers

104) Ore

a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine

105) Humus

organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms