gender bias

universality

the aim to develop theories that apply to ALL people 

gender bias

when research does not represent the experience & behaviour of BOTH men & women 

androcentrism summary

when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard (happens when you have an all male sample) 

alpha gender bias

when theories exaggerate differences between males & females 

beta gender bias

when theories ignore differences between males & females 

Examples of alpha gender bias - evolutionary explanations of gender differences in sexual behaviour

Evolutionary theory proposes there are gender differences in the sexual behaviour of the sexes e.g. it suggests that men are more promiscuous than women.  Males can maximise their number of offspring by sleeping with as many women as possible.  Females are limited in terms of the number of offspring they can have because they have to carry the baby and undergo lactation. They would be better off choosing a high quality male who can provide resources to help their offspring. 

Examples of alpha gender bias - Freud’s psychodynamic theory

Exaggerates the differences between genders by suggesting that females are inferior. This is because in the third psychosexual stage (phallic stage) girls go through the Electra conflict whereas boys go through the Oedipus conflict. However, according to Freud women never overcome the feelings of penis envy that they suffer in the phallic stage. Successful completion of the Phallic stage is important for development of the superego, which is an individual’s moral conscience. Therefore, according to the theory women will always be morally inferior (due to the continuation of their penis envy)!  

Examples of beta gender bias - equity theory of romantic relationships

Equity theory suggests that relationship satisfaction depends on perceived fairness. This is criticised as beta gender biased as differences between genders are ignored. It has been found that females are more concerned with inequity than males. This is supported by a study which found that marital inequity is associated with later marital disruption. In a sample of 1500 couples it was found that if females sense being under-benefited, the risk of divorce increases. However, the findings were not the same for men. 

Therefore, Equity theory is more applicable to females than males, so is minimising gender differences in relationships. 

Examples of beta gender bias - fight or flight response

It was suggested that this response to stress was universal. However, females are more likely to respond to stress with a ‘tend & befriend’ response. This involves protecting themselves & their young and forming protective alliances with other women. This response would have evolved to promote survival of their offspring as females would have been the primary caregiver. Studies on female rats show a release of oxytocin as part of the stress response. This is a hormone that increases relaxation, reduces fear & decreases fight or flight response. Therefore, there are gender differences in stress response which are largely ignored. 

androcentrism

Androcentrism is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard. Historically most psychologists & participants were males, therefore male behaviour is seen as the norm. If our understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all male samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard is likely to be judged as ‘abnormal’ or ‘inferior’. This can lead to female behaviour being misunderstood or mistakenly taken as a sign of a disorder.  

 

For example, it has been argued that the concept of Pre-Menstrual Syndrome stereotypes & trivialises female experience. Critics claim PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotions especially anger by explaining it in hormonal terms. Whereas male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures. So for females, anger is due to hormones that they can’t control, but for males anger is an acceptable response to something in the environment. 

gender bias evaluation - negative implications for women

An issue is that gender biased research has negative implications for women. This is because gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes & validate discriminatory practices. It may be used to provide scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or wider society. For example, women are 2x as likely to be diagnosed with depression as men, maybe because their emotions appear abnormal and irrational compared to the male ‘norm’. Therefore, women are more likely to be labelled as mentally ill even though their emotions are normal reactions. Thus, gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affects the lives & prospects of women. 

gender bias evaluation - negative consequences for men

However, it is important to also recognise that gender biased research can also have negative consequences for men.  For example, if more women are diagnosed with depression they will receive treatment, whereas males may be less likely to be diagnosed and consequently won’t receive treatment. However, it is clear that men do need to be treated if suffering from symptoms of depression due to suicide being the biggest cause of death in men under the age of 40. Therefore, alpha biased diagnosis of mental illness can be detrimental to males as well as females.  

gender bias evaluation - majority of psychological research is carried out by males

A criticism is that as the majority of psychological research is carried out by males, this may have an effect on the results of studies. Female Ps may feel intimidated by male researchers who have the power to label them unreasonable, irrational & unable to complete complex tasks (Nicolson 1995). However, other research by Rosenthal (1966) found that male researchers were more pleasant, friendly & encouraging to female Ps. Another bias in research is that as fewer females carry out research, female concerns may not actually be investigated in the first place. Thus, the lower number of female psychologists results in a continuing androcentric bias in psychological research.  

gender bias evaluation - remains unchallenged

One issue in Psychology is that unfortunately, gender bias remains unchallenged in many theories e.g., theories of sexual selection. It has been suggested that the idea of choosy females & competitive males is rooted in Victorian times when women were coy & males were aggressive with other competitors. However, it has now been recognised that women are equally as competitive & aggressive when the need arises. For example, DNA evidence supports the idea that it is actually a good adaptive strategy for females to mate with more than one man which would lead to competition and aggression amongst females. This shows that theories should be revised and updated.