Introduction to Psychology Comprehensive Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering learning, memory, intelligence, development, psychological disorders, and mental health treatment based on lecture transcript.

Reflex

An involuntary instantaneous movement or reaction to a stimulus.

Instinct

An automatic behavior or natural tendency to react to a stimulus without prior learning.

Learning

The lifelong process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, values, and behaviors.

Maturation

The process of natural genetically programmed growth and development.

Operant Conditioning

A learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by their consequences, associated with B.F. Skinner.

B.F. Skinner

The psychologist associated with Operant Conditioning, where behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus, such as a reward, to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unfavorable or unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing something desirable to decrease a behavior.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process attributed to Ivan Pavlov where an involuntary automatic response to a natural trigger is linked to a previously neutral stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov

The researcher known for Classical Conditioning, involving the linking of natural triggers to neutral stimuli.

Unconditioned Stimulus

Any event that naturally and automatically causes a reflex without prior training.

Unconditioned Response

An automatic natural reaction to a stimulus that requires no prior learning.

Neutral Stimulus

A sensory input or object that initially does not elicit any meaningful response on its own.

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral cue that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned automatic response.

Conditioned Response

A learned automatic reaction to a previously neutral cue developed through associative learning.

Stimulus Generalization

When a person or animal responds to a new stimulus in the same way they were originally conditioned to respond to the initial stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The process of learning to distinguish between similar stimuli and responding to only the specific cue that signals reinforcement.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned behavior or response.

Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden unexpected reemergence of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

Higher-Order Conditioning

A classical conditioning phenomenon where an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a new neutral stimulus.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning where a new behavior or response is established.

Law of Effect

A principle by Edward Thorndike stating that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by discomfort are less likely to happen again.

Edward Thorndike

The psychologist who established the Law of Effect and the Law of Practice.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

A reinforcement schedule where a reward is provided only after a specific number of desired behaviors have been performed.

Fixed Interval (FI)

A reinforcement schedule where a behavior or response is rewarded only after a set unchanged amount of time has passed.

Variable Ratio (VR)

A reinforcement schedule where a behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable number of responses.

Variable Interval (VI)

A reinforcement schedule where a behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

Shaping

The process of reinforcing small steps toward a desired behavior.

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that satisfy biological needs, such as food, water, or sleep, and require no prior learning to be effective.

Secondary Reinforcers

Learned rewards, such as money, grades, or praise, which are established through association.

Behavioral Learning

Learning that relies on conditioning through rewards and punishments.

Cognitive Learning

Learning that focuses on mental processes like memory, understanding, and problem-solving.

Observational Learning

A process described by Albert Bandura where new behaviors and skills are acquired by watching and processing the actions of others.

Albert Bandura

The psychologist who defined Observational Learning and its four stages.

Four Stages of Observational Learning

$1.$ Attention, $2.$ Retention, $3.$ Reproduction, and $4.$ Motivation.

Walter Mischel

Described behavior as a result of a stable system of mental and emotional processes interacting with specific situational contexts.

Julian Rotter

Proposed Social Learning Theory, suggesting behavior is influenced by expectations, experiences, and social interactions.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and may not appear until needed, studied by Edward C. Tolman.

Cognitive Maps

Internal mental representations of a physical environment that animals and humans build through exploration.

Edward C. Tolman

The researcher associated with Latent Learning and the creation of Cognitive Maps.

Learned Helplessness

A concept by Martin Seligman where a person learns they have no control over outcomes and stops trying.

Encoding

The initial process of transforming sensory input into a neural code that the brain can store and later retrieve.

Storage

The retention of data, information, or experiences over time.

Retrieval

The cognitive process of accessing and recovering stored information from long-term memory.

Storage and Transfer Model

A memory model comprising sensory memory ($3-4\,seconds$), short-term memory ($15-30\,seconds$), and long-term memory (limitless).

Levels of Processing Theory

Theoretical framework stating that memory quality depends on how deeply information is processed when first encountered.

Dichotic Listening

An experimental paradigm used to study auditory attention by playing two different audio messages simultaneously.

Flashbulb Memory

A highly vivid, enduring, and detailed memory of the moment an individual learns about a surprising or emotionally significant event.

Serial Position Effect

The psychological phenomenon where items at the beginning and end of a list are remembered better than those in the middle.

Primacy Effect

The component of the serial position effect describing better memory for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

The component of the serial position effect describing better memory for items at the end of a list.

Chunking

A cognitive strategy of breaking information into smaller groups to bypass the limited capacity of working memory.

Clustering

The cognitive process of grouping related information, stimuli, or concepts together.

Conceptual Hierarchy

A knowledge organization structure that groups information into multiple levels of abstraction from general to specific.

Semantic Network

A knowledge representation technique that models relationships between concepts using a graph structure.

Schema

A structured framework or mental blueprint used to organize information and simplify understanding.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

A state where one momentarily fails to retrieve a familiar word from memory despite knowing the information exists.

Context-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where memory is improved in the same environmental environment where learning originally occurred.

State-Dependent Memory

The phenomenon where memory improves when the individual is in the same emotional or physical state as when the information was encoded.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

The researcher who developed the Forgetting Curve to illustrate how memory decays over time without reinforcement.

Recall

Retrieving stored information from memory using little to no external prompts or cues.

Recognition

Identifying a previously encountered stimulus, object, or information when it is seen or heard again.

Decay Theory

A theory suggesting that memories naturally fade and erode over time due to the mere passage of time.

Proactive Interference

Occurs when old memories interfere with the ability to learn or recall new information.

Retroactive Interference

Occurs when newly learned information disrupts the recall of older, previously stored memories.

Motivated Forgetting (Repression)

The process where individuals consciously or unconsciously block distressing or unwanted memories to protect emotional well-being.

False Memory Syndrome

A condition where a person's identity and relationships are disrupted by deeply ingrained belief in objectively false past trauma.

Psychogenic Amnesia

Memory loss originating from psychological factors or emotional distress rather than organic cause.

Organic Amnesia

Memory loss caused by biological brain damage or medical illness.

Anterograde Amnesia

A condition where the brain loses the ability to create new memories following a specific event or injury.

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to recall events, information, or experiences that occurred before the onset of the amnesia-inducing event.

Dementia

An umbrella term for a decline in mental ability severe enough to interfere with daily life.

Procedural Memory

Unconscious long-term memory responsible for knowing how to perform motor skills, habits, and tasks.

Declarative Memory

The conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, concepts, and specific life events.

Episodic Memory

Recalling specific personal events, experiences, and the unique contexts in which they occurred.

Semantic Memory

The brain's long-term storage of general world knowledge, facts, and concepts.

Method of Loci

An ancient mnemonic strategy that uses spatial memory of familiar locations to remember information.

Intelligence Test

Standardized assessments designed to measure human cognitive abilities.

Achievement Test

A standardized assessment designed to measure a person's current knowledge and skills in academic areas.

Aptitude Test

Measures a person's inherent capacity or natural ability to perform specific tasks and learn new skills.

Standardization

The process of establishing uniform procedures for administering or scoring tests and creating baseline norms.

Reliability

The extent to which a test score is consistent and stable.

Validity

The extent to which a test, tool, or experiment accurately measures what it claims to measure.

Alfred Binet

The creator of the first practical intelligence test designed to identify schoolchildren needing extra educational support.

IQ Formula

A ratio calculated as $(\text{Mental Age} \div \text{Chronological Age}) \times 100$.

David Wechsler

Created intelligence tests using Deviation IQ, which measures intelligence based on deviations from the average for an age group.

Two-Factor Theory

Charles Spearman's theory that cognitive ability comprises general intelligence ($g$) and specific abilities ($s$).

Fluid Intelligence

The capacity to think logically, analyze information, and solve novel problems independent of prior knowledge.

Crystallized Intelligence

Represents the sum of acquired knowledge and life experiences over time.

Germinal Stage

The first phase of prenatal development from $0-2\,weeks$ beginning at fertilization.

Embryonic Stage

The second phase of prenatal development from weeks $3-8$, where major organs begin to form.

Fetal Stage

The final stage of prenatal development from weeks $9-40$, involving growth and maturation.

Cephalocaudal Trend

Growth and motor development that occurs from the head downward.

Proximodistal Trend

Growth and motor development that occurs from the center of the body outward toward the extremities.

Temperament

The biologically rooted, inborn differences in emotional reactivity and self-regulation.

Erik Erikson

The psychologist who proposed the Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development across the lifespan.

Jean Piaget

The psychologist who formulated the four stages of childhood cognitive development.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage ($Birth-2\,years$) where infants learn through senses and motor actions.