all organics (most of mechanics)

functional group

alcohols

alcohols suffix

-ol

functional group

halogenoalkane

functional group

aldehydes

aldehydes suffix

-al

alcohols prefix

hydroxy

aldehydes prefix

formyl

functional group

ketones

ketone suffix

-one

ketone prefix

oxo

functional group

carboxylic acids

functional group

ester

ester prefix / suffix

-yl -oate

priority order of functional groups:

carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, alkenes, halogenoalkanes

define: structural isomerism

molecules with the same molecular formula but a different structural formula

define: chain isomerism

different arrangements of a molecule’s carbon skeleton

define: position isomerism

the differing position of the same functional group in the molecule

define: functional group isomerism

differing positions of atoms give a different functional group

define stereoisomerism

molecules with the same molecular and structural formula but a different spatial arrangement of atoms

alkanes typically used as

fuels and lubricants

are alkanes polar

no

intermolecular forces between alkanes

van der waals

as alkane size increases, IMF strength -

increases

whydo branched chain alkanes have lower melting points than straight chain alkanes with the same number of carbon atoms

they cannot pack as closely together so the van der Waals forces are weaker

alkanes solubility

insoluble

why are alkanes insoluble

water molecules are helf together by hydrogen bonds which are much stronger than the Van der Waals forces between alkanes

what technique is used to convert crude oil into useful products

factrional distillating

the fractional distillating column is cooler

at the top than at the bottom

fractions of fractional distillating column from top to bottom

refinery gas, petrol, naptha, kerosene, diesel, lubricating oil, fuel oil, bitumen

as carbon chain gets longer, the hydrocarbons (4 thing)

become more viscous, harder to ignite, less volatile, have higher boiling points

two types of cracking

thermal and catalytic

what is cracking

the thermal decomposition of alkanes

why do hydrocarbons undergo cracking

to make use of excess larger hydrocarbons and supply demand for shorter ones

temperature conditions for thermal cracking

900 degrees celcius

pressure conditions for thermal cracking

70atm

catalyst for thermal cracking

none

products of thermal cracking

alkenes

temperature conditions for catalytic cracking

450 degrees celcius

catalyst for catalytic cracking

zeolites

products of catalytic cracking

motor fuels (aromatics, cyclic alkanes, branched alkanes)

problem caused by CO2

greenhouse gas

problem caused by CO

toxic

problem caused by C

blackens buildings, can cause respiratory problems

problem caused by SO2

acid rain

problem caused by NOx (NO, NO2)

acid rain

what is the process of removing sulfur from the gases produced by power gas

flue gas desulfurisation

method for flue gas desulfurisation

a slurry of CaO (lime) and H2O is sprayed into the flue gas. The flue gas reacts with the CaO and H2O to form calcium sulfite. The calcium sulfite is further oxidised to form calcium sulfate (gypsum, a saleable product).

write the equation for flue gas desulfurisation with CaO (lime):

CaO(s) + SO2(g) → CaSO3(s)

what can be used instead of CaO (lime) in flue gas desulfurisation?

calcium carbonate (limestone)

write the equation for flue gas desulfurisation with CaCO3 (limestone)

CaCO3(s) + ½ O2(g) + SO2(g) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g)

what do catalytic converters do

remove CO, NOx, and unburned hydrocarbons from exhaust gases, turning them into CO2, N2 and H2O

what are catalytic converters (i.e. made up of)

a ceramic honeycomb coated with a thin layer of catalyst metals (i.e. platinum) to give a large surface area

write the equation for CO and NO in a catalytic converter

2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO2 + N2

write the equation for unburned hydrocarbons in a catalytic converter using octane as an example

C8H18 + 25 NO → 8 CO2 + 12.5 N2 + 9 H2O

what do molecules that contain polar bonds do which contributes to the greenhouse effect?

absorb IR radiation to make bonds vibrate

what is the condition for free radical substitution

UV light

3 different reagents for nucelophilic substitution with halogenoalkanes

NaOH, KCN, NH3

what is a nucleophile

an electron pair donor

what are enantiomers

molecules which are non-superimposable mirror images of one another

conditions for nucelophilic substitution NaOH with halogenoalkane

aqueous, warm

conditions for nucelophilic substitution KCN with halogenoalkane

ethanolic, warm

conditions for nucelophilic substitution NH3 with halogenoalkane

excess concentrated ammonia dissolved in ethanol at pressure in a sealed container

reagent for elimination reaction for halogenoalkanes

KOH

conditions for elimination reaction of halogenoalkanes with KOH

hot, ethanolic

what is the beneficial role of ozone in the stratosphere

absorbs UV radiation

OVERALL equation for the decomposition of ozone

2 O3 → 3 O2

are halogenoalkanes soluble

no

why are halogenoalkanes not soluble

the polar C-X bonds are not polar enough to make the halogenoalkanes soluble in water. IMF are permanent dipole-dipole for halogenoalkanes.

boiling point of halogenoalkanes increase with

increased chain length and going down the halogen group

why do increased chain length and larger mr of halogens increase the boiling points of halogenoalkanes

Van der Waal forces

what does the OH- ion act as in the elimination reaction between KOH and halogenoalkanes

a base

why cant the double bond rotate in an alkene

as well as a single carbon bond, there is a p-orbital containing a single electron on each carbon. these two orbitals overlap to form an orbital with a cloud of electron density above and below the single bond. this is called a pi orbital and means the bond cannot rotate.

what does CIP stand for

cahn-ingold-prelog

why are alkenes typically more reactive than alkanes

the electron dense area around the double bond can easily be attacked by electrophiles

what are electrophiles

electron pair acceptors

why are tertiary carbocations more stable than secondary carbocations and secondary carbocations are more stable than primary carbocations?

alkyl groups have a tendency to release electrons. this is known as a positive inductive effect. the positive inductive effect stabilises thepositive charge of the intermediate carbocation.

conditions for electrophilic addition of alkenes with Br2

aqueous

conditions for electrophilic addition of alkenes with HBr

none

conditions for electrophilic addition of alkenes with H2SO4

concentrated H2SO4, cold (typically room temperature)

conditions for electrophilic addition of alkenes with H2O

with strong acid (H2SO4 or H3PO4)

test for double bond

add bromine water to sample, bromine water is decolourised

define polymers

very large molecules built up from small molecules

what is reflux?

heat to boiling point of mixture for a prolonged period of time. Vapour is formed which escapes from the liquid mixture, is changed back into liquid, and returned to the liquid mixture

colour change for acidified potassium dichromate wth alcohols

orange colour turns green (primary and secondary alcohols)

test for carboxylic acids

add NaHCO3, CO2 given off

how is ethanol produced industrially

reacting ethene with steam using a catlyst of phosphoric acid

method for production of ethanol from crude oil

cracking and hydration

method for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

fermentation and distillation

rate of reaction for production of ethanol from ethene

fast

rate of reaction for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

slow

temperature for production of ethanol from ethene

300

temperature for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

35

pressure for production of ethanol from ethene

60-70 atm

pressure for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

1 atm

catalyst for production of ethanol from ethene

phosphoric acid

catlyst for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

enzymes in yeast

conditions for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

anaerobic, aqueous

type of process for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

batch

type if production for production of ethanol from ethene

continuous

purity of ethanol for production of ethanol from carbohydrates

aqueous solution produced requiring fractional distillation