Kines 361- Exam 4

Internal focus of attention

the learner focuses on specific body positions and movements

External focus of attention

attention is directed toward the effects of the actions on the environment

Amount of information

Long, detailed instructions challenge the learner's attentional capacity and short-term memory. Therefore, it is important to keep explanations short and simple.

Precision + example

When giving instructions, be sure to provide the learner with enough information to relay the concept while using developmentally appropriate language/

Example: Telling a person how to do empty can exercises for rotator cuff rehabilitation by saying "raise your arm" vs. "raise your arm to the point where your upper arm is parallel with the floor" will elicit different actions.

Locus of attention + example

When providing initial instructions, focus the learner's attention oncritical elements of the motor skill being learned. Beginners have difficultydiscriminating between relevant and non relevant stimuli.

Example: rather than instructing a patient to focus on the change in angle at the knee during the swing phase of gait, have them imagine kicking a ball. This changes their attentional focus from an internal analysis of the mechanics of the movement toward an effect-based focus.

Frame of reference + example

Tell learners what to expect or what they will experience whenthey perform the action correctly.

Example: when punting, they should feel a little pressure in the shoelace area of the foot when they contact the ball. Or when using crutches, they should feel weight on their hands and not in their armpits.

Verbal analogies + example

When a new skill is introduced, the learner will derive greater meaning from the explanation if it relates to some previous experience.

Example: for an individual with extensive volleyball experience, understanding the arm position at contact for a tennis serve would be easier if a comparison was made to that of the volleyball serve.

a verbal cue + example

is a word or concise phrase that focuses the learner's attention or prompts a movement or movement sequence.

Example: "Feet shoulder width apart" focuses the learner's attention on a key element of the skill

Remoteness effect(refer to predicting performance powerpoint

(POWERPOINT) look at the rows of the matrix. Row 1, as the number of intervening trials increases the correlation between trials decreases. As it gets larger, correlation goes down. Between 1 and 2 there's no intervening trials. Between 1 and 8 the correlation will be at its lowest.

Adjacent-trials effect (refer to predicting performance powerpoint

POWERPOINT: Next to each other, looking at the diagonals on the matrix. The relationship between 2 adjacent trials is going to increase as the number of trials increases. 1 and 2 has a correlation lower than 1 and 8.

Practice- process of simplification

1. Performance early in practice is a poor predictor of performance later in practice

2. number of abilities used systematically decreases with practice, so that the task comes to depend on just a few abilities at the end of practice

Ackerman's integrated model (abilities and stags of learning)

Integrates the concept of Fitt's stages of learning with view of abilities, abilities needed to perform a skill change systematically throughout learning, abilities in use depend on stage of learning

What are the 3 components of Ackerman’s Integrated model? Explain each stage and when they are used during learning

General intellectual abilities (info-processing) more important during first (cognitive)

Perceptual speed abilities more useful during second (associative) stage

Both perceptual and motor abilities play the most prominent role during the third (autonomous) stage

Task Intrinsic/Inherent feedback + example

Feedback that is naturally available from out sensory receptors when performing a skill.

Ex: seeing the ball miss the basket or feeling your arm move awkwardly are both intrinsic feedback

Augmented feedback

A generic term used to describe information about a performance that supplements sensory feedback and comes from a source external to performer.

Ex: coach telling you that you moved your arm too far to the right

1. Augmented feedback is essential for skill acquisition when....

Situations where person is not able to effectively use task-intrinsic feedback

(Not available, physical restriction, can’t interpret sensory feedback)

2. Augmented feedback may not be needed for skill acquisition when…

When augmented feedback is redundant with inherent feedback

Tasks with detectable external referent

Ex: Coincidence anticipation timing task. Cyclone game in arcade. External source telling the learner that they are too early or too late or even milliseconds of early or late, does not improve learning in this type of task. Instead, everything the learner needs to know is present in the intrinsic feedback available in the task itself. So the learner can learn this task without any augmented feedback.

3. Augmented feedback enhances skill acquisition when…

Not necessary, but will enhance it

Neither essential nor redundant

Will be learned more quickly, or will be performed at a higher level if augmented feedback is received during practice

Ex: If you spend everyday for a month in a gym practicing free throws, you will improve. However, if you have a coach there giving you pointers on your form, you will likely get better faster and will reach a higher level of performance than without the coach

Wallace and Hagler (1979)

One hand basketball set shot with non-dominant hand

Shooting 3 meters away and 45 degrees to the left of basket

Groups: 1 got verbal augmented feedback, 2 got verbal encouragement. Group 1 did better in acquisition phase

Group 1 then dominated in performance phase

4. Augmented feedback can hinder skill learning when…

Beginning learner becomes dependent on augmented feedback that will not be available during test situation

Presented concurrently with performance

Presented after every practice trial can have a negative affect

Erroneous- errors

Knowledge of Results (KR) + example

externally presented info about the outcome of an attempt to perform a skill.

Ex: if a teacher tells a student in an archery class, "the shot was in the blue at 9 oclock, the teacher is providing info about the outcome

Knowledge of performance (KP) + example

info about the movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome

EX: a. the teacher could provide KP by telling the student that he or she pulled the bow to the left at the release of the arrow. Here, the teacher augments the task-intrinsic feedback by telling the student what he or she did that caused the arrow to hit the target where it did.

Skills Analysis

Requires you to identify the various component parts of skill and prioritize each part in terms of how critical that part is for performance of skill

Descriptive feedback + example

Tells the learner what they are doing incorrectly

Ex: you moved your right foot too soon

Prescriptive feedback + example

gives the learner info about how to correct the mistake

Ex: you need to move your right foot at the same time you move your right arm

Biofeedback + example

refers to the augmented form of task-instrinsic feedback. external source is providing info about physiological processes

Ex: heart rate, blood pressure, muscle activity

Terminal feedback

Feedback given after the learner has finished performing the skill

Concurrent augmented feedback

feedback that is given during the performance of the skill

Performance based bandwidths + example

augmented feedback is provided only when the learner commits an error. Errors are determined via the use of a bandwidth around the target

Ex: A blindfolded person is throwing bean bags at a target. The bandwidth around the target has been set as + or - 10 cm. Therefore, if the participant throws the bean bag within 10 cm of the target, no feedback will be given. However, if the throw lands outside the bandwidth, augmented feedback will be given. Therefore, augmented feedback is only given when a sufficiently large error is committed.

Self-selected frequency

technique which allows the learner to determine when they would like to receive feedback. Allows learner to participate more actively in the receipt of feedback

Summary augmented feedback + example

a technique where augmented feedback about a given set of trials is presented as a list after the completion of the last trial in the set.

Example: a. summary augmented feedback about the previous 10 trials could be presented as a list after the completion of the 10th trial. This reduces the frequency of presentation of augmented feedback, but provides the same amount of information as if augmented feedback were presented after every trial.

Fading + example

augmented feedback is presented more often at the beginning of practice and is slowly reduced as practice continues

Example: a. on day 1 of practice, the learner may receive feedback after every trial. On day 2, feedback could be presented on every second trial. On day 3, the frequency could be reduced again, so that feedback is only presented on every 3rd trial, and so on.

Massed practice

practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is very short

Distributed practice

a practice schedule in which the amount of rest between practice sessions or trials is relatively long

Intertrial interval

the amount of rest that a person has between trials within a given practice session

Overlearning

practice that continues beyond the amount needed to achieve a certain performance criterion

Baddeley & Longman (1978)

Learning is better if it is spread out over days than if it is massed within a few days. (look at powerpoint)

Bourne & Archer (1956)

some effects were due to temporary detrimental effects of fatigue, substantial differences were maintained between the groups after the rest period(practice distribution had a relatively permanent effect on this continuous task

Serial skills

Well suited to overlearning because of cognitive and motor components

Ex: soldiers disassembly/assembly of machine gun

- practice to achieve criterion

-Groups: immediate overlearning, delayed overlearning, no overlearning

Results: overlearning resulted in better retention after 8 weeks

Dynamic balance skill

Ability to balance, equilibrium, less of a cognitive component

Shea and Kohl

Too many practice trials can actually lead to poorer performance. adding more practice beyond a certain point improved performance during acquisition but was detrimental to retention

Whole-task practice strategy + example

requires the skill to be practiced in its entirety in the form that it will be performed in the test situation. a. Example- if the test requires juggling three flaming sticks, then whole-task practice would require that the practice situation use three flaming sticks.

Part-task practice strategies + example

require practicing individual components of the skill separately, and then bringing each component together once the learner has become sufficiently competent at each of the components OR simplifying the task in some way during learning.

Ex: juggling three non-flaming sticks (same example as above) or a tennis serve can be broken down by the grip, stance, ball toss, backswing, forward swing, ball contact and follow through

Complexity + example

The number of parts or components in a skill, as well as the info processing demands of the task.

Ex: a. How many things must a person think about during the execution of the skill? How much has to be remembered from previous experiences?

Organization + example

The temporal and spatial relationship among the component parts.

Example: swinging a golf club requires coordinating the arm movements of the swing with the rotation of the hips and lower body, and the timing between these two segments must be precise if the skill is to be executed correctly.

Segmentation + example

A part method in which a skill is broken down into component parts and the parts are practiced separately until some level of proficiency is obtained. Once the level of proficiency is achieved, the skill is practiced as a whole.

Example: we could practice the toss separately and then, after we had mastered a toss that was straight and the correct height, we could combine it with the backswing. After a level of proficiency had been achieved with the combined toss and backswing, we could then add the forward swing and so on.

Fractionization + example

is a part method of practice involving the isolated practice of various skill components that would normally be performed simultaneously.

Example: playing the piano-where the right hand is practiced alone, the left hand is practiced alone and then the two hands are practiced together or swimming- where beginners practice leg and arm movements independently before bringing them together.

Simplification + example

is a method of part practice where a skill is practiced in the whole, but in a way which reduces the complexity of some of the features of the skill or the environment in which it is performed.

Example: Reducing the difficulty of specific parts or features of the skill, such as lowering a basket or making the target large or Sequencing skill progressions, such as what we saw with Gentile's matrix

Skill organization

High: driving standard, shooting a jump shot

Low: typing

Practice skills high in organization using a whole-task practice strategy

Attentional cueing

prescriptive feedback that directs learners' attention to the most pertinent information for correcting a particular performance error

Mental practice + example

the active cognitive or mental rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt physical movements

Example: It usually involves imaging oneself performing a skill. Mental practice should not be confused with meditation or day-dreaming. The person usually will think about the cognitive or procedural aspects of all or part of a skill.

Internal imagery + example

is a form of mental practice in which a person imagines being inside his or her own body while performing a skill and experiencing the sensations that are expected of the actual situation. This type of imagery is often called kinesthetic imagery.

Example: imagine performing jumping jacks. What movements and sensations do you experience in your legs, your arms, your torso? Try to imagine feeling those movements and sensations.

External imagery + example

form of mental practice in which a person imagines viewing him or herself performing a skill form the perspective of an observer. This type of imagery is often called visual imagery.

Example: imagine watching yourself perform jumping jacks. What movements do you see in your legs, your arms, your torso? Try to imagine seeing how your legs and arms flex and extend. Focus in on one joint and really watch how it moves.

Imagery ability + example

ability to imagine an action when requested to do so

roles of mental practice

Improves the acquisition of motor skills, aids in performing a well-learned skill

Effectiveness of mental practice

pegboard,

aids in learning a skill in a rehabilitation setting, improves skills involving power, improves muscle strength

Cognitive view of mental practice

Learning cognitive elements of task, learning strategies, predicting movement consequences, ruling out inappropriate courses of action

Neuromuscular explanation (motor programs) about mental practice

Neuromotor pathways are being activated during mentalpractice although activity in muscle is not sufficient formovement (speech, bending arm)

Brain activity hypothesis (mental practice)

Functional anatomy overlaps with that involved in controlling motor performance

Brain activity study

Task: making a fist with right and left hands, execute movement, imagined movements

Supplementary motor area, premotor cortex, primary motor cortex

Mental practice as a preparation strategy

Singer developed a five-steplearning strategy that integratedmental & physical practiceStep 1: Get ready physically,emotionally, and mentallyStep 2: Mentally imaging theperformanceStep 3: Concentrate on few criticalcuesStep 4: Execute the movement oractivityStep 5: Evaluate the performance

Imagery ability

mental practice effectiveness is related to one's imagery abilities

- individual difference variable

MIQ

people with high abilities will benefit more than those with low abilities

Transfer of learning + example

is defined as the gain (or loss) in proficiency of one skill as the result of practice on some other skill.

Example: imagine a person who has suffered a stroke and is working with a physical therapist to regain the ability to walk. The goal of all the work that is done in the clinic setting is to allow the patient to walk in their own home, on city sidewalks, during icy conditions, etc.

Positive transfer

This is the beneficial effect of previous experience (transfer task) on learning or performance of another skill

Negative transfer

This is the negative effect of prior experience on the performance of a skill so that the person performs the skill less well than he or she would have without prior experience.

No transfer

This is when prior experience has no effect on the performance of another skill

Percentage of transfer

1. Describes how much transfer has occurred. This method quantitatively determines how performance of the transfer task influences performance on the criterion task.

a. Example: Percentage of transfer= [(Experimental group-Control group)/(Experimental group + Control group)] x100 OR Percentage of transfer=[(Y-X)/(Y+X)] x 100

Savings score

This measures looks at how much practice is "saved" by Group I because they practiced the transfer task.

Skill components

we would expect the amount of transfer between the tennis serve and the volleyball serve to be greater than that between the tennis serve and the racquetball serve

Context component

we would expect a higher degree of transfer to occur when practice conditions included transfer test context characteristics than when they do not. In a clinical situation, for example, physical therapy protocols that include walking in the patient's everyday living environment will yield more positive transfer than those that involve experiences only in the clinic.

Elements

general characteristics of a skill or performance context—such as the purpose of the skill or the attitude of the person performing the skill—or specific characteristics of the skill, such as components of the skill being performed.

Transfer appropriate process

is the similarity in cognitive processes required by two performance or learning situations. In this view, transfer is determined by the similarity between the cognitive processing required by the transfer task and the cognitive processing engaged in during training. Example: Soccer and Hockey

Generalized motor program

is thought to develop of practice and provides the basis for generating movement sequences within a class of movements that share the same invariant features, such as sequence order, relative timing, and relative force.

Transfer tests

A person performs a skill that is different from the skill they practiced

Or a person performs the same skill in a different context or situation

Identical elements theory + 2 components of it

states that the level of training transfer depends on the similarity of skill and context components

Similarity of skill components: we would expect the amount of transfer between the tennis serve and the volleyball serve to be greater than that between the tennis serve and the racquetball serve

Similarity of context components: we would expect a higher degree of transfer to occur when practice conditions included transfer test context characteristics than when they do not. In a clinical situation, for example, physical therapy protocols that include walking in the patient's everyday living environment will yield more positive transfer than those that involve experiences only in the clinic

Transfer-appropriate processing theory + example

Similarity of processing requirements

Ex: goalie in hockey and soccer

Why do negative transfer effects occur?

Perception-action coupling, cognitive confusion

Perception-action coupling

Memory representations developed as a result of learning a skill, perform wrong skill (push and pull door example)